Performances of Peace Performances of Peace Utrecht 1713 Edited by Renger E. de Bruin, Cornelis van der Haven, Lotte Jensen and David Onnekink LEIDEN | BOSTON This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.com/brill-typeface. isbn 978-9004-30477-2 (hardback) isbn 978-9004-30478-9 (e-book) Copyright 2015 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi and Hotei Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper. This research has been made possible with the generous support of The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO). Cover illustration: A meeting of the negotiators in the Utrecht city hall, Utrechtse Vrede, geslooten in ‘t jaar 1713 (Peace of Utrecht, concluded in the year 1713). Late-18th-century engraving by Simon Fokke from Jan Wagenaar, Vaderlandsche historie verkort en by vraagen en antwoorden voorgesteld (Amsterdam: By de Wed. Isaak Tirion, 1770). Utrechts Archief, Utrecht This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported (CC-BY-NC 3.0) License, which permits any non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the origi- nal author(s) and source are credited. Contents List of Illustrations ix Notes on Contributors xi Introduction 1 Renger E. de Bruin, Cornelis van der Haven, Lotte Jensen and David Onnekink Part 1 The Diplomatic Stage 1 The Olive and the Horse: The Eighteenth-Century Culture of Diplomacy 25 Linda Frey and Marsha Frey 2 Behind the Stage: The Global Dimension of the Negotiations 40 Lucien Bély 3 ‘Enemies of their patrie ’? Savoyard Identity and the Dilemmas of War, 1690–1713 53 Phil McCluskey 4 Pride and Prejudice: Universal Monarchy Discourse and the Peace Negotiations of 1709–1710 69 David Onnekink Part 2 The Publicity Stage 5 Madame Du Noyer Presenting and Re-presenting the Peace of Utrecht 95 Henriette Goldwyn and Suzan van Dijk 6 ‘Dieu veuille que cette Paix soit de longue durée . . .’ The History of the Congress and the Peace of Utrecht by Casimir Freschot 114 Heinz Duchhardt vi contents 7 The Treaty of Utrecht and Addison’s Cato : Britain’s War of the Spanish Succession, Peace and the Imperial Road Map 123 Samia Al-Shayban 8 Jonathan Swift’s Peace of Utrecht 142 Clare Jackson 9 Visions of Europe: Contrasts and Combinations of National and European Identities in Literary Representations of the Peace of Utrecht (1713) 159 Lotte Jensen Part 3 The Theatrical Stage 10 Theatres of War and Diplomacy on the Early-Eighteenth-Century Amsterdam Stage 181 Cornelis van der Haven 11 Performance and Propaganda in Spanish America during the War of the Spanish Succession 197 Aaron Alejandro Olivas 12 Promoting the Peace: Queen Anne and the Public Thanksgiving at St Paul’s Cathedral 207 Julie Farguson 13 Fiery Metaphors in the Public Space: Celebratory Culture and Political Consciousness around the Peace of Utrecht 223 Willem Frijhoff Part 4 The Commemorative Stage 14 Memory Theatre: Remembering the Peace after Three Hundred Years 251 Jane O. Newman vii Contents 15 Peace Was Made Here: The Tercentennial of the Treaty of Utrecht, 2013–2015 266 Renger E. de Bruin Index 283 List of Illustrations 0.1 A ball in honour of the birth of the crown prince of Portugal (19 October 1712), organized by the count of Tarouca on 27 February 1713 in Utrecht. Engraving by Nicolas Chevalier from Relation des fêtes, que le Comte de Tarouca a données (Utrecht: N. Chevalier, 1714) 10 0.2 The Peace of Utrecht . Engraving by Anna Folkema. From: Roeland van Leuve, Mengelwerken (Amsterdam: J. Verheyden, 1723) 14 1.1 Medal in silver to Commemorate the Treaty of Rastatt, 1714. Design by Martin Brunner (1659–1725) 38 5.1 Picture showing the Quintessence des Nouvelles for the year 1713, issue d.d. January 12th, about the feast organized by the count of Tarouca of Portugal in celebration of the birth of the Prince of Brazil 104 6.1 Title page of Histoire du Congrès et de la Paix d’Utrecht (Utrecht: G. van Poolsum, 1716), with an engraving by Jan Goeree 115 9.1 Portrait of the poet and publisher François Halma (1653–1722) by Arnoud van Halen 160 9.2 Title page of Halma’s poem on the Peace of Utrecht: Vredezang (Amsterdam: J. van Oosterwyk, 1713) 171 9.3 Title page of Enoch Krook’s play Staatkunde (Amsterdam: J. Lescailje and D. Rank, 1713) 174 10.1 Showman with peepshow: ‘Eerste Harlequin’, from: Jan Pook: Rommelzoodje. Eerste Harlequin, reizende met zijn Rarekiek (Amsterdam: Timotheus ten Hoorn, 1709), fol. 19 188 10.2 Coloured etching of the Battle of Blenheim by Romeyn de Hooghe: Zegen by Hoogstad op de Fransen en Beyersen door S.H: Marlbourg en Pr. Eugenius van Savoyen verkreegen (Amsterdam: Pieter Schenck, 1704) 191 10.3 Map by G. Harrweyn of the Battle of Wijnendale: De l’Action entre le Corps des troupes Alliez Commandé par le G. Maj. Webb. Contre l’Armée des François Commandé par le Comte de la Motte aupres de Wynendale le 28. Sept. 1708 (Brussels: Eugene Henri Fricx, s.a. [1708]) 192 11.1 Téâtre de la guerre en Amerique telle qu’elle est à present possedée par les Espagnols, Anglois, François, et Hollandois &c . (Amsterdam: P. Mortier, 1703) 199 13.1 Firework by the States General in The Hague, 14 June 1713. Afbeeldingh van het Theater met zyn Ornamenten en Constigh Vuurwerck opgericht door ordre van haar Hoog Mog. de Heeren Staten Generael der Vereenichde Nederlanden etc. etc. etc. in s’Gravenhage in de Vyver x list of illustrations [. . .] afgestoken op den 14 Iuny 1713 Ter occasie van de Vrede met zyn Alderchristelyksten Maj.t Louis den XIIII. Con. van Vrankryck etc. etc. etc. tot Uytrecht geslooten op den 11 April 1713 . Engraving by D. Stoopendaal after H. Pola (The Hague: Anna Beeck, 1713) 227 13.2 Firework by the States of Holland and West-Friesland in The Hague, 14 June 1713. Afbeeldingh van het Theater met syn ornamenten en Constigh Vuurwerck, opgericht door ordere van haar Ed. Groot Mog: de Heeren Staten van Hollant en West Vriesland etc. etc. etc. in ’s Gravenhage in de Vyver afgestoken op de 14 Juny 1713. Ter occasie van de Vreede met syn Alderchristelycksten Majesteyt Louis de XIIII. Coning van Vrankryk etc. etc. etc. tot Uytrecht geslooten, op den 11 April, daar bevorens . Hand- coloured engraving with and without illumination, by D. Stoopendaal after H. Pola (The Hague: Anna Beeck, 1713) 228–229 13.3 Inscriptions and devices of the firework by the States of Holland and West-Friesland in The Hague, 14 June 1713. Devises et Inscriptions Contenuës dans la construction érigée pour le Feu d’Artifice de la Province de Hollande & de Westfrise, au sujet de la Paix avec la France. Concluë à Utrecht le 11. Avril en l’année 1713. Composées par Mr. De Vrigny (The Hague: chez Gerard Rammazeyn, pour Pierre Loofs, s.a. [1713]) 232 13.4 Firework by the States of Friesland in Leeuwarden, 14 June 1713. Afbeelding van het Theater met syn Ornemente en Constig Vuurwerk, opgeregt door ordre van haer Ed. Mog. de Heeren Staeten van Vrieslandt etc. etc. etc. in Leeuwaerden op ’t Markvelt, afgestooken op den 14 Junij 1713. Ter occasie van de Vrede met Syn Alderchristelyksten Maj.t Louis de XIIII Coning van Vranckryck etc. etc. etc . Engraving by P. van Call after D. Marot 236 13.5 Firework by the Admirality of Rotterdam on the river Meuse in Rotterdam, 14 June 1713. Afbeelding van het Theater en Vuurwerck opgeregt in de Maese door ordre van de Ed. Mog. Heeren de Gecommitteerde Raden ter Admiraliteyt resideerende te Rotterdam over de Vrede gesloten tot Uitregt in den Jaere 1713 . Engraving by B. Picart after F. van Douwe (s.l., 1713) 242 Notes on Contributors Samia Al-Shayban is Assistant Professor of British theatre and its connection to politics and ideology during the Restoration and the long eighteenth century at King Saud University-Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. She has published on restoration and eighteenth-century British theatre. Her publications include essays on John Dryden, Nicholas Rowe, George Lillo Aphra Behn and John Gay. She explores women’s issues, slavery, imperialism and wars in relation to the plays staged during her research period. Lucien Bély is Professor of Modern History at the University Paris-Sorbonne, specializing in international relations and the era of Louis XIV. His major books include: Espions et ambassadeurs au temps de Louis XIV (Fayard, 1990), La Société des princes (XIV e –XVIII e siècle) (Fayard, 1999), L’Art de la paix. Naissance de la diplo- matie moderne (PUF, 2007), Les Secrets de Louis XIV. Mystères d’État et pou- voir absolu (Tallandier, 2013). He has been the director of the Dictionnaire de l’Ancien Régime (PUF, 1996) and edited L’Invention de la diplomatie (PUF, 1998), L’Europe des traités de Westphalie. Esprit de la diplomatie et diplomatie de l’esprit (with Isabelle Richefort, PUF, 2000), L’information à l’époque moderne (Presse de L’Université de Paris-Sorbonne, 2001), La Présence des Bourbons en Europe (PUF, 2003), L’Incident diplomatique (with Géraud Poumarède, A. Pedone, 2011). Renger E. de Bruin studied history at the University of Utrecht. His PhD thesis (1986) was on the impact of the French Revolution on the local politics of Utrecht. Between 1979 and 1994 he worked as a lecturer, researcher and visiting professor at the Universities of Utrecht, Leiden and Greifswald. Since 1994 he has been a cura- tor at the Centraal Museum Utrecht. Moreover, he was a Professor of Utrecht Studies from 2001 to 2011. In 2013 he curated an exhibition on the Treaty of Utrecht in the Centraal Museum, which later travelled to Madrid, Rastatt and Baden. Heinz Duchhardt was Professor of Modern History at Bayreuth, Münster and Mainz universi- ties and was, until his retirement, director of the Institute of European History (1994–2011). He is at present president of the Max Weber Foundation. He has xii notes on contributors worked on, written and edited about 80 books on international relations in early modern times, persons and structures of the “Sattelzeit” and the idea of Europe in modern times. Suzan van Dijk is a specialist in French literature and senior researcher at the Huygens Institute for the History of the Netherlands (KNAW Royal Dutch Academy of Arts and Sciences). She is particularly interested in women’s authorship (eighteenth and nineteenth century), the reception of women’s writing and international connections between women authors. In this field she initiated and chaired a series of international projects, funded by NWO, COST, CLARIN-NL and HERA. Julie Farguson has recently completed her doctoral thesis at the University of Oxford and is currently a non-stipendiary lecturer at Hertford College, Oxford. Her thesis looks afresh at the visual presentational strategies employed by monarchs, consorts and their advisors in the wake of the Glorious Revolution (1689–1714). Linda Frey and Marsha Frey are graduates of the Ohio State University and currently professors at the University of Montana and Kansas State University. They specialize in eight- eenth-century international relations and international law. They have in tandem co-written, co-edited and co-annotated numerous books and articles including The History of Diplomatic Immunity, The Treaties of the War of the Spanish Succession (Ohio State University Press, 1999) and ‘Proven Patriots’: the French Diplomatic Corps, 1789–1799 (Centre for French History and Culture of the University of St Andrews, 2011). The duo is currently completing a mono- graph on the culture of French Revolutionary diplomacy and another on the French Revolutionary challenge to international law. Willem Frijhoff is Emeritus Professor of Early Modern History at VU-University, Amsterdam, and holds the Erasmus chair for Humanities on behalf of the G.Ph. Verhagen Foundation at the Erasmus University, Rotterdam. Currently he chairs the NWO-research program on Cultural dynamics. His research topics include dif- ferent themes from the cultural history and historical anthropology of early modern Western Europe and North America, in particular the history of men- talities and religious experience, education and the universities, and identity, xiii Notes On Contributors memory and oblivion in history. His books Embodied Belief (Verloren, 2002), 1650: Hard-Won Unity (co-authored with Marijke Spies, Van Gorcum, 2004), and Fulfilling God’s Mission: The Two Worlds of Dominie Everardus Bogardus 1607–1647 (Brill, 2007) have been widely acclaimed. Henriette Goldwyn is a specialist of Early Modern Literature and Culture in the department of French at New York University, and the director of New York University in Paris. She is one of the cofounders of the SIEFAR (Société Internationale pour l’Étude des Femmes de l’Ancien Régime). Her research and publications focus on narrative fiction in the sevententh century, early modern women writers, polemical journalism and religious discourse. She has written extensively on women writers, specially Mme Du Noyer whose Mémoires she edited. She is co-editing a five-volume anthology of French Women Playwrights from the Renaissance to the end of the eighteenth century and is preparing a volume on the culture of prophecy and divine inspiration in France. Cornelis van der Haven is Assistant Professor at Ghent University in the field of early modern Dutch literature. He has published widely on the history of Dutch and German the- atre and literature in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with a strong focus on the role of literature in shaping cultural and social identities. He wrote his dissertation at Utrecht University about theatre life and urban cul- ture in Amsterdam and Hamburg (1675–1750). In 2013 the Flemish Research Foundation (FWO) awarded him a scholarship to carry out his postdoctoral research project ‘Enlightenment at War’: Epic Poetry, the Citizen and Discursive Bridges to the Military (1740–1800). This project deals with the relation between epic poetry and military thought in the eighteenth century, focusing on civil approaches of the military in Dutch and German poetry and military treatises. Clare Jackson is Senior Tutor of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. She is the author of around twenty articles on the history of seventeenth-century Britain as well as a monograph, Restoration Scotland. Royalist politics, religion and ideas, 1660–1690 (Boydell Press, 2003). Between 2004 and 2011 she was editor of the Historical Journal and she also presented a three-part television series on The Stuarts (2014) on BBC2 in 2014. She is currently preparing an edition of Jonathan Swift’s historical writ- ings for Cambridge University Press. xiv notes on contributors Lotte Jensen is Associate Professor of Dutch Literary History at Radboud University, Nijmegen. She has published widely on Dutch historical literature, Dutch cul- tural history and national identity formation. Her English publications include a prize-winning essay on Dutch literary resistance against Napoleon and the conference volume Free Access to the Past. Romanticism, Cultural Heritage and the Nation (co-edited with Marita Mathijsen and Joep Leerssen, Brill, 2010). She currently heads the research project Proud to be Dutch. The role of war and propaganda literature in the shaping of an early modern Dutch identity between 1648 and 1815 , a VIDI project funded by the NWO (Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research). This project charts the rise and development of Dutch national thought. In 2013 she was elected as member of The Young Academy (Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences). Phil McCluskey is Lecturer in the History of Early Modern Europe at the University of Sheffield. His research interests concern the expansion of early modern France, both within Europe and overseas. He recently completed a book on France’s eastern frontiers, Absolute Monarchy on the Frontiers: Louis XIV’s Military Occupations of Lorraine and Savoy (Manchester University Press, 2013). His current proj- ect, ‘Louis XIV’s Crusade Against Islam’, examines French relations with the Ottoman world in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Jane O. Newman is Professor of Comparative Literature at the University of California, Irvine (USA). Her first two books, Pastoral Conventions (Hopkins, 1990) and The Intervention of Philology (North Carolina, 2000), discuss the German seven- teenth century; her third book, Benjamin’s Library: Modernity, Nation, and the Baroque (Cornell, 2011) received an Honorable Mention for the 2012 Modern Language Association (MLA) Scaglione Prize in Germanic Languages and Literatures. Newman has held Guggenheim and Humboldt fellowships, and was a Fulbright Senior Scholar in Berlin, Germany, in 2010–11. She is working on two projects, After Westphalia: Pre- and Early Modern Lessons for a Post-Modern Age , and Early / Modern: Erich Auerbach between Theology and History David Onnekink is Assistant Professor in the History of International Relations section of the Department of History of Utrecht University. He is interested in early mod- ern foreign policy, in particular in connection with the Dutch Republic and xv Notes On Contributors England. He is the author of The Anglo-Dutch Favourite. The career of Hans Willem Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland (2007) and co-author of De Vrede van Utrecht (1713) (with Renger E. de Bruin, Verloren, 2013). He has also co-edited several volumes of essays on early modern foreign policy. Aaron Alejandro Olivas is an Ahmanson-Getty postdoctoral fellow at the University of California, Los Angeles, Centre for Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Studies. His current book-length project examines cases of disloyalty and sedition against Philip V’s rule in Spanish America and the Philippines during the War of the Spanish Succession. His work also focuses on the role of French imperial agents on Spanish colonial policy during the turn of the eighteenth century. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���5 | doi ��.��63/9789004304789_00� This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial-NonDerivative 3.0 Unported (CC-BY-NC 3.0) License. Introduction Renger E. de Bruin, Cornelis van der Haven, Lotte Jensen and David Onnekink On Friday the 29th of this month January [1712], at ten o’clock in the morning, the Congres or assembly of the plenipotentiaries was opened, with the sound of trumpets.1 Thus the peace congress in Utrecht that would end twelve years of global warfare and would alter the map of Europe for the foreseeable future was ceremoniously opened. Spectators witnessed the ostentatious arrival of the ambassadors, such as the bishop of Bristol and the earl of Strafford for the queen of England, and the abbot of Polignac and marshall d’Huxelles for the king of France, who arrived by coach and were led into the building by a chamberlain of the congress. The performance was witnessed by ‘the conflu- ence of countless people’ who had gathered on the square in front of city hall and observed the arrival of the bishop of Bristol and his equipage, who was ‘very splendourous’, with a long magnificent robe carried by two pages.2 These were ‘dressed in white linen, with light green velvet covers, with silver embroi- deries and with red plumes on their hats; the footmen in purple linen, with light green covers and with golden collars’.3 The theatrical setting of the congress underscores its performative nature, a play in several acts in which the actors, the diplomats, had set roles. The perfor- mances of peace are the subject of this volume which focuses in particular on the Peace of Utrecht of 1713, a milestone in European history. It concluded the * The editors wish to thank the following institutions for their financial support of the 2013 conference and the publication of this volume: The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research NWO (specifically Lotte Jensen’s VIDI-project ‘The role of war and propaganda litera- ture in the shaping of an early modern Dutch identity, 1648–1815’ and the Internationalisation project ‘Rethinking the Peace of Utrecht’), Utrecht University, the Dutch-Belgian Society for Eighteenth Century Studies, the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Peace of Utrecht Foundation. 1 Europische Mercurius, behelzende de voornaamste zaken van staat en oorlog, voorgevallen in alle de koningryken en heerschappyen van Europe 23 (1712), I, 84. 2 Europische Mercurius 23 (1712), I, 84, 85. 3 E. Harskamp, ‘Journael of daegelijxe annotatie vant gene ontrend de vredehandel tot Utrecht de heeren, daer toe den 16 december 1711 van stadswege gecommitteert, is voorgekomen,’ Berigten van het Historisch Genootschap te Utrecht 3:2 (1851): 213–220, appendix. 2 de Bruin, van der Haven, Jensen and Onnekink extensive wars that had swept through Europe as well as the overseas colonies and heralded an exceptionally long period of peace for early modern times in Western Europe that lasted until the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740. The Peace of Utrecht ended the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1713), pitching the Grand Alliance against France in a struggle for domination of the continent. The prize was the throne of Spain, vacant since the death in 1700 of the childless last Habsburg king Carlos II. When plans for partition came to naught, France and Habsburg became embroiled in a major struggle for the inheritance, in which England and the Dutch Republic allied with the Emperor but Spain supported the French claimant. Battlefields were scat- tered over several locations in Western Europe: on the Iberian peninsula, the Spanish Netherlands, Northern Italy and on the German side of the Rhine. On a far smaller scale, fighting took place in the American colonies and on the world’s oceans. Despite Allied victories near Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706), Turin (1706), Oudenaarde (1708) and Malplaquet (1709), France remained undefeated. A series of peace negotiations led by the Dutch and the French, which commenced in 1705, ultimately failed in 1710. Renewed secret negotia- tions between France and the English Tory ministry which came into power in 1710, eventually led to the Peace of Utrecht which was settled in April 1713. The Peace of Utrecht acknowledged the French claimant, now Philip V, as king of Spain, but also allotted dispensation to the Habsburg claimant in Italy (Naples, Sardinia and Milan) and the Spanish Netherlands. The French lost possessions in Canada to the English, who also took Gibraltar and Minorca and wrested the asiento (the monopoly on slave trade to the Spanish Empire) from the French. The Dutch received a military Barrier in the Southern Netherlands. The peace treaties continued in Baden, Rastatt and Madrid in 1714 and 1715 completed the process. The wars between France and the Grand Alliance changed the nature and scale of European warfare. Armies grew dramatically in a process described as a military revolution. The Dutch had an army of over 100,000 men, but the French army peaked at 420,000 troops in its heyday.4 Battles were also fought on a larger scale. In the Battle of Blenheim, for instance, some 120,000 troops were involved and the casualties numbered tens of thousands.5 According to 4 John A. Lynn, Giant of the grand siècle the French Army, 1610–1715 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 32; David Onnekink and Renger de Bruin, De Vrede van Utrecht (Hilversum: Verloren, 2013), 34. 5 J.W. Wijn, Het Staatsche Leger. Deel VIII: Het tijdperk van de Spaanse Successieoorlog, 1702–1715 Volume 1 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1956), 471–479. 3 Introduction Jeremy Black, the period between 1660 and 1710 witnessed an important step in this process, in which scale and organization were tied up with the growth of state administration.6 This inevitably also changed the impact on society, most notably through heavier taxation.7 The Peace of Utrecht embodies several intriguing contradictions. While it brought about a prolonged period of peace in Europe, it also inaugurated the age of aggressive ‘balance of power’ politics. Although the Peace was main- tained for several years, conflict resulting from disputed articles arose as early as 1716 when Spain went to war over Sicily and Sardinia. However the great powers intervened in order to restore the Utrecht settlement. That settlement collapsed with the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740. Moreover, the Peace of Utrecht restructured overseas commerce and arguably accelerated Anglo- French rivalry in the colonies, that reached a climax in 1756 with the start of the Seven Years War. The long years of conflict paradoxically forged a growing sense of ‘Europe’ as an international society, and artistic depictions of the Treaty of Utrecht highlighted both the European character of the Peace as well as the proto- patriotic sentiments that it stirred. At the same time, as the conclusion of a period in which international religious rivalry once again flared up, the Peace of Utrecht itself witnessed a striking lack of attention to religious matters. Although Protestant plenipotentiaries submitted a declaration of support for suppressed religious minorities on 11 April 1713, the day of the conclusion of Peace, the actual treaties all but ignored religious matters.8 While the public was generally averse to war, it did not neglect to celebrate its war heroes. Prince Eugene of Savoy and the Duke of Marlborough became celebrities. The impact of war also interacted with the growing news indus- try. In the Dutch Republic, for instance, political pamphlets already circulated during the Dutch Revolt, but the genre really took off in the early seventeenth century, peaking in 1672 with a total of at least one million copies.9 In England, 6 Jeremy Black, A military revolution? Military change and European society, 1550–1800 (Basingstoke: MacMillan, 1991). 7 E.g. Wantje Fritschy, ‘The Poor, the Rich, and the Taxes in Heinsius’ Times,’ in Anthonie Heinsius and the Dutch Republic 1688–1720. Politics, War, and Finance , ed. J.A.F. de Jongste and A.J. Veenendaal (The Hague: Institute of Netherlands History, 2002), 242–258. 8 James W. Gerard, The peace of Utrecht a historical review of the great treaty of 1713–14, and of the principal events of the war of the Spanish succession (New York/London: G.P. Putnam, 1885), 299. 9 Roeland Harms, Pamfletten en publieke opinie. Massamedia in de zeventiende eeuw (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2011), 25; Michel Reinders, Gedrukte chaos. Populisme en moord in het Rampjaar 1672 (Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Balans, 2010), 14.