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Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Dedicated to my parents, in-laws, and teachers who are great sources of inspiration and support Preface......................................................................................................................xi Editor.......................................................................................................................xv Contributors........................................................................................................ xvii 1. Fuels and Trends .............................................................................................1 Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas 2. Vegetable Oils ............................................................................................... 21 Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas, Chandrasekaran Muraleedharan, and Simon Jayaraj 3. Biodiesel ......................................................................................................... 41 Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas, Simon Jayaraj, and Chandrasekaran Muraleedharan 4. Methanol ........................................................................................................ 81 Mustafa Canakci and Oguzhan Ilgen 5. Ethanol .......................................................................................................... 129 Alan C. Hansen, Carroll E. Goering, and Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas 6. Dimethyl Ether ............................................................................................ 167 Spencer C. Sorenson 7. Liquefied Petroleum Gas ........................................................................... 203 Mohamed Younes El-Saghir Selim 8. Compressed Natural Gas .......................................................................... 227 Gattamaneni Lakshmi Narayana Rao and Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas 9. Hydrogen ...................................................................................................... 243 Fernando Ortenzi, Giovanni Pede, and Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas 10. Electric Vehicles .......................................................................................... 295 Nallusamy Nallusamy, Paramasivam Sakthivel, Abhijeet Chausalkar, and Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas Contents ix 11. Fuel Cells ...................................................................................................... 321 Parthasarathy Sridhar, Sethuraman Pitchumani, and Ashok K. Shukla 12. Hybrid Vehicles ........................................................................................... 361 K. T. Chau 13. Future Fuels ................................................................................................. 393 Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas Appendix: Fuel Properties ............................................................................... 419 Index .....................................................................................................................423 x Contents Preface Two problems currently confronting the world are the energy crisis and envi ronmental pollution. Energy consumption in the world is increasing faster than its generation. It is estimated that the existing petroleum oil and natural gas reserves will be sufficient for only another few decades. The transpor tation sector and decentralized power generation completely depend upon petroleum products, particularly gasoline and diesel. The transportation sector is growing at a faster rate than reserves due to rapid technological development in the automotive industry and an increase in the use of per sonal vehicles in developed and developing countries. Thus the demand for petroleum accelerates the crude oil petroleum production peaks as well as its cost. Vehicle pollution has been a serious concern for the past few decades all over the world. Combustion products of petroleum fuels, such as carbon dioxide, are a major contributor to greenhouse gases. An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will lead to global climate change. In the early 1960s, the United States initiated laws to control vehicle emis sions and most other counties in the world have followed its lead. Moreover, the increasing operating cost of refineries to meet the latest emissions norms has put pressure on refining margins, and remains a problem converting refinery streams into products with acceptable fuel specifications. The combination of a short supply of fossil fuel reserves, environmental pollution, and volatility in crude oil prices has generated interest for using alternative fuels. In the long term, the role and interrelationship of alternative energy sources with other markets demand further attention and consid eration. Renewable alternative fuels (i.e., biofuels) have low-net greenhouse gases; hence, many countries are promoting them as a part of their national plan to reduce greenhouse gases and to improve their energy security. Stringent emission standards have been enforced in many countries which has led to improvement in automotive technology and the use of alternative fuels like biofuels and gaseous fuels at an optimum blend. This book addresses the need for energy researchers, engineers (mechani cal, chemical, and automobile), doctoral students, automotive power train researchers, vehicle manufacturers, oil industry researchers, and others interested in working on alternative fuel sources. Each chapter in the book contains the potential of the alternative fuels, production methods, proper ties, and vehicle tests, as well as their merits and demerits. The structure of this book is such that each chapter—describing a particu lar fuel—is completely self-contained. The book is intended for anyone in need of comprehensive understanding of alternative fuels. Anyone would be xi xii Preface able to reference a particular fuel that is of interest without having to read other chapters to gain a full understanding of fuel technology. Chapter 1 highlights the importance of moving the focus toward alternative fuels and the problems resulting from dependence on petroleum products and their environmental impacts. It outlines the parameters for the selection of alternative fuels and the scenario of alternative fuel vehicles. Chapter 2 describes the characterization of vegetable oils and various methods for use in diesel engines. The performance, emissions, and durability studies on die sel engines using vegetable oil–diesel blends and challenges posed by veg etable oils in engines are discussed. The necessity of the transesterification process and the various methods to produce biodiesel from vegetable oils are reviewed in Chapter 3. Biodiesel properties, testing methods, the effect of properties on engines and emissions, engine performance, emissions and durability, and the challenges posed by biodiesel are discussed in detail. Chapters 4 and 5 discuss the use of alcohols in internal combustion engines. The methods to produce alcohols, properties, ways to use alcohols in gasoline and diesel engines, materials compatibility, safety aspects, and challenges are reviewed. In Chapter 6, dimethyl ether production methods, economics, fuel properties, its applications in the engine as well as domestic applications, safety aspects, and its future scope are described. Chapter 7 discusses the potential of liquefied petroleum gas, its produc tion, properties, its use in gasoline and diesel engines, conversion kits, mate rial compatibility, and safety aspects. The natural gas production, utilization, properties, its storage, distribution, safety aspects, its usage in gasoline and diesel engines, and natural gas advantages and disadvantages are discussed in Chapter 8. In Chapter 9, clean fuel hydrogen production from various sources; its properties; well-to-wheel analysis; safety; economics; hydrogen- fueled spark ignition engines and compression ignition engines; hythane engine; its storage in various forms such as liquid, solid, and gaseous; its benefits; and challenges are all elaborated. Zero emission vehicles are divided into three chapters: electric vehicles, fuel cells, and hybrid vehicles. Chapter 10 details the construction and working principle of the motor, battery, and controllers; solar panel–operated electric vehicles, and the current scenario. In Chapter 11 the working principle, vari ous types of fuel cells, fuel cell arrangement, fuel cell fueling systems, fuel processing systems, technical issues, fuel cell vehicle configuration, and the current scenario of the fuel cell market are discussed. Based on the available energy sources, the battery electric vehicle and fuel cell electric vehicle can not compete with the internal combustion engine vehicle in terms of driv ing range or initial cost. In the future, the hybrid electric vehicle (commonly called the hybrid vehicle) is not only a major class of alternative fuel vehicles, but also a practical solution for commercialization of super ultralow emis sion vehicles. Chapter 12 presents an overview of the latest hybrid vehicles, with emphasis on their configurations, classification, and operations as well as energy efficiency and environmental benefits. Preface xiii The first generation of biofuels may face problems in the future if food crops are used for fuel purposes. Chapter 13 gives an overall picture of future fuels that can be produced from nonfood crops. Biodiesel produced from algae, ethanol from cellulosic materials, biohydrogen, Fisher–Tropsch diesel, and dimethyl ether by gasification processes are discussed. This book can be considered a textbook for college curricula that deal with fuel technology, internal combustion engines, alternative fuels, renewable energy, and sustainable development. Expert readers might include mechan ical engineers, automobile engineers, chemical engineers, fuel engineers, fuel processors, policy makers, environmental engineers, and graduate/ postgraduate/doctoral students. I express my sincere thanks to my teachers and my friends who helped in the preparation of the book. Authors wish to acknowledge Elsevier publications, the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, the Advanced Fuels and the Advanced Vehicles Research Center (U.S. Department of Energy) for their kind permission to reproduce figures and tables from their publications/ data bank. I express my sincere thanks to my mentors, particularly Dr. S. Jayaraj (National Institute of Technology Calicut), Dr. C. Muraleedharan (National Institute of Technology Calicut ), Dr. G. Lakshmi Naryana Rao (QIS College of Engg, Ongole), Dr. N. Nallusamy (Sri Venkateswara College of Engg, Chennai) and my friends who helped in the preparation of the book. Special thanks to Ashish Kachhawa, of Indian Oil (R&D) for designing the theme of the cover of the book. I must, especially, express my indebtedness to my wife Gomathy, my daughter Shivani, and my son Arvind for their patience and support all the way. Dr. Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas Editor Dr. Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas received his BE (1996) from Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai; his ME (1999) from Annamalai University, Chidambaram; and his PhD (2007) from the National Institute of Technology Calicut in mechanical engineering. He has published more than 25 research papers in peer-reviewed international journals and spoken at conferences/ seminars, and contributed two chapters on biodiesel in the Handbook of Plant- Based Biofuels (2008). He is a reviewer of reputed international journals in the area of fuels and engines and a member of the Society of Automotive Engineers, India, and the Combustion Institute of India. He has a decade of experience in academia and industry. Presently he holds a position of Senior Research Officer in the Engine Testing of Fuels and Emissions Department, Research and Development Center of Indian Oil Corporation Ltd., India. His research focuses on conventional and alternative fuels, gasoline additives, engine technologies, and emissions. xv Contributors Mustafa Canakci Department of Automotive Engineering Technology Alternative Fuels R&D Center Kocaeli University Izmit, Turkey K. T. Chau Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering International Research Centre for Electric Vehicles The University of Hong Kong Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China Abhijeet Chausalkar Engine Testing Laboratory Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (R&D Center) Faridabad, India Carroll E. Goering Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign Champaign, Illinois Alan C. Hansen Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign Champaign, Illinois Oguzhan Ilgen Department of Chemical Engineering Alternative Fuels R&D Center Kocaeli University Izmit, Turkey Simon Jayaraj Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology Calicut Calicut, India Chandrasekaran Muraleedharan Department of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology Calicut Calicut, India Nallusamy Nallusamy Department of Mechanical Engineering Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering Chennai, India Fernando Ortenzi CTL Centre for Transport and Logistics Sapienza University of Rome Rome, Italy xvii xviii Contributors Giovanni Pede Department of Energy Technologies Italian National Agency for New Technologies Rome, Italy Sethuraman Pitchumani Central Electro Chemical Research Institute-Madras Unit CSIR Madras Complex Chennai, India Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas Engine Testing Laboratory Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (R&D Center) Faridabad, India Gattamaneni Lakshmi Narayana Rao QIS Institute of Technology Ongole, India Mohamed Younes El-Saghir Selim Mechanical Engineering Department College of Engineering United Arab Emirates University Al Ain, United Arab Emirates Paramasivam Sakthivel Engine Testing Lab Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. (R&D Center) Faridabad, India Ashok K. Shukla Solid State and Structural Chemistry Unit Indian Institute of Science Bangalore, India Spencer C. Sorenson Department of Mechanical Engineering Technical University of Denmark Lyngby, Denmark Parthasarathy Sridhar Central Electro Chemical Research Institute-Madras Unit CSIR Madras Complex Chennai, India 1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................1 1.2 Energy Security..............................................................................................3 1.3 Environmental Pollution...............................................................................6 1.4 Alternative Fuels ............................................................................................8 1.4.1 Alcohols............................................................................................... 10 1.4.1.1 Methanol .............................................................................. 10 1.4.1.2 Ethanol.................................................................................. 11 1.4.2 Vegetable Oils and Biodiesel ............................................................ 11 1.4.3 Gaseous Fuels ..................................................................................... 12 1.4.3.1 Natural Gas.......................................................................... 12 1.4.3.2 Liquefied Petroleum Gas ................................................... 13 1.4.3.3 Hydrogen ............................................................................. 13 1.4.4 Ethers ................................................................................................... 14 1.4.5 Electric/Fuel Cell/Hybrid Vehicles ................................................ 15 1.4.6 Future Fuels ........................................................................................ 16 References............................................................................................................... 19 1 Fuels and Trends Arumugam Sakunthalai Ramadhas CONTENTS 1.1 Introduction Energy is the prime mover for economic growth of any country and is vital to the sustenance of modern economy. Future economic growth crucially depends on the long-term availability of energy from sources that are afford able, accessible, and environmentally friendly as well. The major sources of energy in the world are fossil fuels (petroleum oil, coal, and natural gas), renewable energy (hydro, wind, solar, geothermal, marine energy, and com bustible wastes), and nuclear energy. These primary energy sources are converted into secondary energy sources; that is, coal and crude oil are con verted into electricity and steam. Combustible wastes include animal products, biomass, and industrial wastes. Coal is the major source of energy for electric power generation where as petroleum products are for the transport sector. Energy consumption is 1