African Cities and the Development Conundrum International Development Policy Editor-in-Chief Gilles Carbonnier /Ugo Panizza Guest Editors Carole Ammann Till Förster volume 10 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/idp Editorial Board Marc Bacchetta ( Counsellor, Economic Research and Statistics Division, wto, Geneva, Switzerland ) Jean-François Bayart ( Professor of Anthropology and Sociology of Development, The Graduate Institute Geneva, Switzerland ) Gilles Carbonnier ( Vice-President of the icrc, Geneva, Switzerland ) Carlos Casas Trogodara ( Professor of Economics, Universidad del Pacifico and Director of Center for Studies in Mining and Sustainability, Peru ) Francis Cheneval ( Professor of Political Philosophy at the University of Zurich, Switzerland ) Suren Erkman ( Head, Industrial Ecology Group, Faculty of Geosciences and Environment, University of Lausanne, Switzerland ) Marcela Eslava ( Associate Professor, Universidad de los Andes, Colombia ) Till Förster ( Professor of Anthropology, Institute of Social Anthropology, University of Basel, Switzerland ) Ricardo Fuentes-Nieva ( ceo, Oxfam, Mexico ) Inge Kaul ( Adjunct professor, Hertie School of Governance, Berlin, Germany ) Xiaoyun Li ( Dean of the College of Humanities and Development Studies, China Agricultural University and Chief Senior Advisor, International Poverty Reduction Center, China ) Pamela Martin ( Professor of Political Science and Geography, Coastal Carolina University, usa ) Katharina Michaelowa ( Professor of Political Science, the Institute for Political Science (ipz), University of Zurich, and Director of the Center for Comparative and International Studies (cis), Switzerland ) Hassan Mshinda ( Director, Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (costech) ) Patrick Osakwe ( Head, Trade and Poverty Branch Division for Africa, ldcs and Special Programmes, unctad, Geneva, Switzerland ) Dennis Rodgers ( Professor of International Development Studies, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands ) Jésus Seade ( Professor of Economics and Associate Vice-President for Global Affairs, Chinese University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen, China ) Elizabeth Sidiropoulos ( Chief Executive, South African Institute of Interntional Affairs, South Africa ) Mahaman Tidjani Alou ( Doyen de la Faculté des sciences économiques et juridiques, Enseignant chercheur en science politique, Université Abdou Moumouni de Niamey, Niger ) Jorge Alberto Restrepo Torres ( Associate Professor, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogota, Colombia ) James Zhan ( Director, Division on Investment and Enterprise, unctad, Geneva, Switzerland ) Depty Editor-in-Chief and Director Christophe Gironde Editor Graziella Moraes Silva Managing Editor Frances Rice Research and Communication Officer Maren Schulte Figure layout & technical editing Marie Thorndahl Copy editing Dave Brooks Cover Photo Till Förster Visit International Development Policy and associated documents online http://devpol.org International Development Policy Previous Titles Africa: 50 Years of Independence , No. 1, Geneva: Graduate Institute Publications, 2010, issn print 1663–9383 | issn online 1663–9405 | ean 9782940415274. Energy and Development , No. 2, Basingstoke/Geneva: Palgrave Macmillan/Graduate Institute Publications, 2011, ean 9780230282483. Aid , Emerging Economies and Global Policies , No. 3, Basingstoke/Geneva: Palgrave Macmillan/Graduate Institute Publications, 2012, ean 9781137003409. Religion and Development , No. 4, Basingstoke/Geneva: Palgrave Macmillan/Graduate Institute Publications, 2013, ean 9781137329370. Education, Learning, Training: Critical Issues for Development , No. 5, Leiden|Boston/Geneva: Brill Nijhoff/Graduate Institute Publications, 2014, ean 9789004281141. Large-Scale Land Acquisitions, F ocus on South-East Asia, No. 6, Leiden|Boston/Geneva: Brill Nijhoff/Graduate Institute Publications 2015, ean 9789004304741. Combining Economic and Political Development, The Experience of mena, No. 7 Leiden|Boston/Geneva: Brill Nijhoff/Graduate Institute Publications 2017, ean 9789004336452. Development as a Battlefield , No. 8 Leiden|Boston/Geneva: Brill Nijhoff/Graduate Institute Publications 2017, ean 9789004349520. Alternative Pathways to Sustainable Development Lessons from Latin America, No. 9 Leiden|Boston/Geneva: Brill Nijhoff/Graduate Institute Publications 2017, ean 9789004351660. THE GRADUATE INSTITUTE | GENEVA Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies Institut de hautes études internationales et du développement Research Office P.O. Box 1672 CH–1211 Geneva 1 Switzerland publications@graduateinstitute.ch http://www.graduateinstitute.ch/home/research/publications.html African Cities and the Development Conundrum Edited by Carole Ammann Till Förster leiden | boston This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the prevailing CC-BY-NC License at the time of publication, which permits any non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. Cover illustration: Street scene in Korhogo, Côte d’Ivoire, courtesy Till Förster (2015). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Ammann, Carole, editor. | Förster, Till, editor. Title: African cities and the development conundrum / edited by Carole Ammann, Till Forster. Description: Leiden ; Boston : Brill, [2018] | Series: International development policy, ISSN 1663-9383 ; Volume 10 | Includes index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018040919 (print) | LCCN 2018041920 (ebook) | ISBN 9789004387942 (E-book) | ISBN 9789004387928 (pbk. : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Urbanization--Africa. | Urban policy--Africa. | City planning--Africa. Classification: LCC HT384.A35 (ebook) | LCC HT384.A35 A3195 2018 (print) | DDC 307.76096--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018040919 Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface. ISSN 1663-9383 ISBN 978-90-04-38792-8 (paperback) ISBN 978-90-04-38794-2 (e-book) Copyright 2018 by the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi, Brill Sense, Hotei Publishing, mentis Verlag, Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh and Wilhelm Fink Verlag. Koninklijke Brill NV reserves the right to protect the publication against unauthorized use and to authorize dissemination by means of offprints, legitimate photocopies, microform editions, reprints, translations, and secondary information sources, such as abstracting and indexing services including databases. Requests for commercial re-use, use of parts of the publication, and/or translations must be addressed to Koninklijke Brill NV. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner. Contents Foreword ix Preface x List of Illustrations xi Acronyms and Abbreviations xiii Notes on Contributors xv Part 1 Introduction 1 African Cities and the Development Conundrum: Actors and Agency in the Urban Grey Zone 3 Till Förster and Carole Ammann 2 The Politics of Governing African Urban Spaces 26 Edgar Pieterse Part 2 Urban Governance 3 Urban Governance in Africa: An Overview 55 Warren Smit 4 Informal Governance: Comparative Perspectives on Co-optation, Control and Camouflage in Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda 78 Claudia Baez Camargo and Lucy Koechlin 5 Why is Co-management of Parks Not Working in Johannesburg? The Difficult Reframing of State Mandate and Practices in the Post-Apartheid Era 101 Claire Bénit-Gbaffou viii Contents Part 3 Planning, Politics and the Urban Grey Zone 6 Online Representation of Sustainable City Initiatives in Africa: How Inclusive? 139 Ton Dietz 7 Incremental Dependencies: Politics and Ethics of Claim-making at the Fringes of Windhoek, Namibia 162 Lalli Metsola 8 Towards an Integrative Approach to Spatial Transformation Addressing Contextual and Spatial Indifference in Design, Urban Planning and International Cooperation: A Case Study from Addis Ababa 188 Sascha Delz 9 Accra’s Decongestion Policy: Another Face of Urban Clearance or Bulldozing Approach? 213 Aba O. Crentsil and George Owusu Part 4 The Rural-Urban Continuum 10 The Africa Problem of Global Urban Theory: Re-conceptualising Planetary Urbanisation 231 Garth Myers 11 Urban Identities and Belonging: Young Men’s Discourses about Pikine (Senegal) 254 Sebastian Prothmann 12 The City and Its Ways of Life: Local Influences on Middle-Income Milieus in Nairobi 275 Florian Stoll 13 Urbanisation and the Political Geographies of Violent Struggle for Power and Control: Mining Boomtowns in Eastern Congo 302 Karen Büscher Index 325 Foreword We are pleased to introduce this new thematic issue of International Develop- ment Policy. This issue, number 10, explores some of the complex development challenges associated with Africa’s relatively recent and rapidly-progressing urbanisation. Analysing urban settings through the diverse experiences and perspectives of inhabitants and stakeholders in cities from Addis Ababa and Johannesburg to mid-sized cities such as the mining boomtowns of Eastern Congo, this collection of articles invites readers to ponder the evolution of in- ternational development policy responses across the region. The contributions are organised in four parts. Part one includes an introduc- tion by the guest editors, Carole Amman and Till Förster, and a scene-setting chapter by Edgar Pieterse. Part two looks at urban governance and is followed by chapters addressing policy, planning and informality in part three. The ru- ral-urban continuum is explored in the fourth and final part. Sixteen authors and co-authors have contributed, several of whom are based in the Africa re- gion itself, and all offering a rich variety of expertise and viewpoints drawing on anthropology, economics, geography, political science and sociology. Articles in this issue were the subject of lively exchanges during the 7th Eu- ropean Conference on African Studies (ECAS), held in Basel in late June and early July 2017. The editors are grateful for the substantive comments of the anonymous reviewers and others who commented on earlier drafts. Taken together, the articles challenge readers to reconsider the relationship between urbanisation in Africa and conventional development narratives, and make an important contribution to the existing literature. We hope this col- lection will resonate especially with new readers across the Africa region as well as among our regular readership of scholars and practioners, thanks to its timely and relevant focus on a region whose population is set to shift from predominantly rural to urban in just over a decade. The Editors, Basel, Bern and Geneva, July 2018 Preface International Development Policy is a critical source of analysis of development policy and international cooperation trends and is aimed at scholars, policy makers and development professionals. It offers a diverse range of academic views from both industrialised countries and emerging economies. International Development Policy is edited by the Graduate Institute of In- ternational and Development Studies, an institution of research and higher education dedicated to advancing world affairs. Located in Geneva at the heart of an international centre of multilateral governance, the Graduate Institute benefits from a rich legacy linked to the founding of the international system and the League of Nations in the 1920s, and the emergence of the developing world in the 1960s. http://devpol.org http://graduateinstitute.ch/research We extend our thanks to the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and Geneva Canton’s Service de la Solidarité Internationale (SSI) for their financial support. List of Illustrations Figures 2.1 GDP composition by sector, Africa, 1961–2012 35 2.2 The political settlements 3-D space 43 2.3 Dialogical experimental urban research 46 5.1 JCPZ organogram, 2013. Recommended level 3 positional structure 113 8.1 Ring Road sections, and Addis Ababa’s road network as of 2010 193 8.2 Schematic diagram of road cross-section geometry 195 8.3 Restricted cross-section for ground-level freeways 195 8.4 Ring Road tender drawings, selection of continuous road sections 196 8.5 Traffic jam, Ring Road 198 8.6 Industrial and housing development at Quarry Roundabout, 2002 / 2013 199 8.7 Street vendors, Ring Road 200 8.8 Animals, Ring Road 201 8.9 Jaywalking, Ring Road 203 9.1 Map of the GAMA showing the CBD and decongested areas 221 12.1 Milieus in Nairobi’s middle-income stratum 287 Tables 4.1 Types of co-optation 88 4.2 Actions conducive to gaining and losing status 90 5.1 Ten strategic Key Performance Indicators for JCPZ 115 5.2 Summary of Key Performance Indicators for JCPZ Regional Managers, 2017 117 5.3 Summary of Key Performance Indicators for Stakeholder Liaison Officers, 2015 118 5.4 Types of formal agreements developed by City Parks to engage with user groups and property owners: from co-production to delegation 123 6.1 Africa’s cities in world perspective 140 6.2 Africa’s major urban agglomerations in 2016 142 6.3 EIU criteria for the African Green City Index 145 6.4 Assessment of environmental performance in 15 major African cities 146 xii List of Illustrations 6.5 Summary of online networks/assessments of participating African megacities 151 9.1 Population of GAMA, 1970–2010 219 10.1 Cities in Africa according to the (GaWC) Ranking 233 Acronyms and Abbreviations AACRA Addis Ababa City Roads Authority AAPS Association of African Planning Schools AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transport Officials ACC African Centre for Cities afd Agence Française de Développement AfDB African Development Bank AFSUN African Food Security Urban Network AMA Accra Metropolitan Assembly AMS Association des Maires du Sénégal ANT actor–network theory APCLS Alliance of Patriots for a Free and Sovereign Congo (DRC) AR Affirmative Repositioning movement (Namibia) AU African Union AURI African Urban Research Initiative CBDs central business districts CID City Improvement District CLO community liaison officers CORD Coalition for Reforms and Democracy (Kenya) CNDP National Congress for the Defence of the People (DRC) CRBC China Road and Bridge Corporation CSOs civil society organisations DBSA Development Bank of Southern Africa DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo EABI East African Bribery Index EIU Economist Intelligence Unit EPWP Expanded Public Works Programme (South Africa) ERA Ethiopian Roads Authority FARDC Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo FGDs focus group discussions FroK Friends of Kloofendal GAMA Greater Accra Metropolitan Area GaWC Globalization and World Cities Research Network IAGU Institut Africain de Gestion Urbaine ICLEI International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives ICT Information and communications technology IDPs internally displaced persons IDRC International Development Research Centre xiv Acronyms and Abbreviations IMF International Monetary Fund IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISUD-Plan Integrated Strategic Urban Development Plan JCPZ Johannesburg City Parks and Zoo KAT Kisumu Action Team (Kenya) KIWASCO Kisumu Water and Sewerage Company (Kenya) KLIP Kisumu Local Interaction Platform KPAs Key Performance Areas KPIs Key Performance Indicators MDGs Millennium Development Goals MoA Memorandum of Agreement MONUSCO United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo MoU Memorandum of Understanding NGOs non-governmental organisations NHP National Housing Policy (Ghana) nsdf National Spatial Development Framework (Ghana) NUs neighbourhood units NUPF National Urban Policy Framework (Ghana) ODM Orange Democratic Movement (Kenya) OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development ORNs Overseas Road Notes PARECO Coalition of Congolese Patriotic Resistance PRD Pearl River Delta RCD Rassemblement Congolais pour la Democratie (DRC) SACN South African Cities Network SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SDSN Sustainable Development Solutions Network SJC Social Justice Coalition SLAs Service Level Agreements SLOs Stakeholder Liaison Officers SMMEs Small Micro and Medium Enterprises TRL British Transport and Road Laboratory UCLG United Cities and Local Governments UCT University of Cape Town UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Notes on Contributors Carole Ammann is a postdoctoral researcher at the Institute of Geography at the University of Bern and at the Institute of Sociology, University of Fribourg. She recently com- pleted her dissertation—entitled ‘Silent Politics. Gender, Imagination and the State in Kankan, Guinea’—at the University of Basel. Carole Ammann is inter- ested in questions of urbanity, secondary cities, transformations of the state, political participation, everyday life, and gender in West Africa and France. Claudia Baez Camargo holds a PhD in Political Science from the University of Notre Dame, USA and a graduate degree in Economics from the University of Cambridge, England. She is Head of Governance Research at the Basel Institute on Governance/Uni- versity of Basel, where she is responsible for the development, oversight and management of the Institute’s research activities as well as delivering technical assistance projects aimed at preventing corruption in the public sector. Claire Bénit-Gbaffou is an Associate Professor in the School of Architecture and Planning at Wits University (South Africa) and a member of the Centre for Urbanism and Built Environment Studies (CUBES). Her research expertise lies in urban politics, community participation, local leadership and urban governance. She is cur- rently coordinating a research programme focusing on ‘Practices of the State in Urban Governance’, based on South African city case studies. Karen Büscher is an Assistant Professor at the Conflict Research Group, Ghent University, Bel- gium. Her research focuses on different aspects of the relationship between violent conflict and urbanisation in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Aba Obrumah Crentsil is a research fellow at the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Re- search (ISSER) at the University of Ghana. A multidisciplinary researcher, her research interests include renewable energy, the energy–health nexus, climate change, urbanisation and sustainable development. Sascha Delz holds a Doctor of Sciences and a Master’s degree in Architecture from ETH Zurich. After practicing as an architect in New York and Switzerland, he worked xvi Notes on Contributors as design instructor and researcher at the Department of Architecture of ETH Zurich, and the Future Cities Laboratory in Singapore. While his dissertation investigated urban transformations under the premise of international devel- opment cooperation in Ethiopia, his current postdoctoral research explores models of cooperative housing for low-income contexts. Ton Dietz was Director of the African Studies Centre Leiden (ASCL) and a member of the Board of African Studies in Europe (AEGIS) until September 2017. He was one of the initiators of oursus.org, a website about sustainable city initiatives developed under the umbrella of the International Geographical Union. Cur- rently, Ton Dietz is a senior researcher at the ASCL and Emeritus Professor of African Development at Leiden University. Till Förster is an anthropologist. He holds a PhD from the Freie Universität Berlin. Since 2001 he has been Chair of Social Anthropology at the University of Basel. Till Förster has specialised in art, visual culture and political transformations in West and Central Africa. Since 1979, he has conducted field research in Côte d’Ivoire and Cameroon. His recent publications focus on visual culture, social creativity and the postcolonial state, as well as on politics and governance in African cities. Lucy Koechlin is Senior Lecturer at the Institute of Social Anthropology, University of Basel. Her research and teaching focuses on political transformations in Africa, with a particular focus on urban politics, democratic spaces and governance. As a consultant, Dr Koechlin has been involved in a wide range of cross-sectoral mandates on anti-corruption, accountability and governance. Lalli Metsola received his Master’s degree in Cultural Anthropology and his doctorate in Development Studies at the University of Helsinki, where he works as a postdoctoral researcher examining claim-making dynamics related to urban land, basic services and housing in Namibia and Botswana. His earlier studies focused on former exiles, ex-combatants and veterans in Namibia. He special- ises in political anthropology, state formation, citizenship, post-conflict trans- formations and southern Africa. Garth Myers is the Paul E. Raether Distinguished Professor of Urban International Stud- ies and Director of the Urban Studies Program at Trinity College in Hartford, xvii Notes on Contributors Connecticut, USA. He is the author of four books and co-editor of two other books on urban Africa, along with more than 65 articles and book chapters. His primary areas of expertise concern the historical and political geography of urban and environmental planning in cities in Africa. George Owusu is a Professor at the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER) and the Director of the Centre for Urban Management Studies (CUMS) at the University of Ghana. His main areas of research include urban and re- gional development, urban crime, urban land use and administration, local governance and decentralisation, and civil society and participatory approach- es to development. Edgar Pieterse holds the South African Research Chair in Urban Policy and is founding di- rector of the African Centre for Cities at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. His most recent co-authored book is: New Urban Worlds. Inhabiting Dis- sonant Times (Polity, 2017). Sebastian Prothmann studied geography, social anthropology and sociology at the Georg-August- Universität Göttingen and received a doctorate in 2015 at the Johann Wolfgang von Goethe-Universität Frankfurt with a thesis entitled ‘Youth in “Kinpi Cor- ner”: Lifeworlds of Young Men beyond Migration and Immobility in Pikine, Senegal.’ His main research interests centre around topics of Senegalese (im) mobilities and transnationalism, and African migration in general. Warren Smit is a senior researcher at the African Centre for Cities, an urban research insti- tute based at the University of Cape Town in South Africa. Smit’s background is in urban planning, and he has been a researcher on urban issues in Africa since 1993. His main research interests are urban governance, urban health, and housing policy. Florian Stoll has been working since May 2013 in the sociological wing (with Prof. Dieter Neubert) of the project ‘Middle Classes on the Rise’ at the Bayreuth Academy of Advanced African Studies, Germany. From October 2016 to October 2017 he was a visiting scholar at the Center for Cultural Sociology, Yale University. Stoll’s main research areas are the sociology of the global South (Foci Kenya/ Brazil), cultural sociology, social stratification/milieus, globalisation theories, and urban theory/the sociology of space. Part 1 Introduction ∵