The Palgrave Handbook of Digital Russia Studies Edited by Daria Gritsenko Mariëlle Wijermars · Mikhail Kopotev The Palgrave Handbook of Digital Russia Studies Daria Gritsenko Mariëlle Wijermars • Mikhail Kopotev Editors The Palgrave Handbook of Digital Russia Studies ISBN 978-3-030-42854-9 ISBN 978-3-030-42855-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42855-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2021. This book is an open access publication. Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this book are included in the book’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the book’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: FrankRamspott / gettyimages Cover design: eStudioCalamar This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Editors Daria Gritsenko University of Helsinki Helsinki, Finland Mikhail Kopotev Higher School of Economics (HSE University) Saint Petersburg, Russia Mariëlle Wijermars Maastricht University Maastricht, The Netherlands v P reface This Handbook emerged out of the Digital Russia Studies (DRS) initiative, 1 launched by Daria Gritsenko and Mariëlle Wijermars at the University of Helsinki’s Aleksanteri Institute and Helsinki Center for Digital Humanities (HELDIG) in January 2018. The aim of the DRS initiative was to unite schol- ars of the humanities and the social and computer sciences working at the intersection of “digital” and “social” in the Russian context. By providing a regular meeting place and networking opportunities, we sought to establish open discussion and knowledge sharing among those who study the various aspects of digitalization processes in Russia and those studying Russia with the use of (innovative) digital methods. The many positive responses to our inter- disciplinary approach and the exciting research that is currently conducted in this area of study inspired us to join forces with Mikhail Kopotev to compile this Handbook. The editors would like to thank Lucy Batrouney and Mala Sanghera-Warren, our commissioning editors at Palgrave Macmillan, for their enthusiasm for the project as well as the anonymous reviewers for their critical eye. We thank the Faculty of Arts of the University of Helsinki for making it possible to publish the Handbook in Open Access. We are particularly grateful to Aleksandr Klimov, our research assistant, who was of great help in preparing the manu- script for publication. The interdisciplinarity of the Handbook has affected our choice concerning the transliteration of Russian. While it is customary for scholars working in the humanities and social sciences to apply the Library of Congress system of trans- literation, for scholars in linguistics and computer science a different system, ISO 9, is more appropriate. For consistency, we have chosen to follow the vi PREFACE Library of Congress system for references (authors’ names) and ISO 9 for all other Russian terms and names throughout the book. Where appropriate, cus- tomary English spellings are maintained for familiar terms, places, and per- sonal names. Helsinki, Finland Daria Gritsenko Maastricht, The Netherlands Mariëlle Wijermars Saint Petersburg, Russia Mikhail Kopotev 1. https://blogs.helsinki.fi/digital-russia-studies/. N ote vii c oNteNts 1 Digital Russia Studies: An Introduction 1 Daria Gritsenko, Mikhail Kopotev, and Mariëlle Wijermars Part I Studying Digital Russia 13 2 The Digitalization of Russian Politics and Political Participation 15 Mariëlle Wijermars 3 E-Government in Russia: Plans, Reality, and Future Outlook 33 Daria Gritsenko and Mikhail Zherebtsov 4 Russia’s Digital Economy Program: An Effective Strategy for Digital Transformation? 53 Anna Lowry 5 Law and Digitization in Russia 77 Marianna Muravyeva and Alexander Gurkov 6 Personal Data Protection in Russia 95 Alexander Gurkov 7 Cybercrime and Punishment: Security, Information War, and the Future of Runet 115 Elizaveta Gaufman viii CONTENTS 8 Digital Activism in Russia: The Evolution and Forms of Online Participation in an Authoritarian State 135 Markku Lonkila, Larisa Shpakovskaya, and Philip Torchinsky 9 Digital Journalism: Toward a Theory of Journalistic Practice in the Twenty-First Century 155 Vlad Strukov 10 Digitalization of Russian Education: Changing Actors and Spaces of Governance 171 Nelli Piattoeva and Galina Gurova 11 Digitalization of Religion in Russia: Adjusting Preaching to New Formats, Channels and Platforms 187 Victor Khroul 12 Doing Gender Online: Digital Spaces for Identity Politics 205 Olga Andreevskikh and Marianna Muravyeva 13 Digitalization of Consumption in Russia: Online Platforms, Regulations and Consumer Behavior 221 Olga Gurova and Daria Morozova 14 Digital Art: A Sourcebook of Ideas for Conceptualizing New Practices, Networks and Modes of Self-Expression 241 Vlad Strukov 15 From Samizdat to New Sincerity. Digital Literature on the Russian-Language Internet 255 Henrike Schmidt 16 Run Runet Runaway: The Transformation of the Russian Internet as a Cultural-Historical Object 277 Gregory Asmolov and Polina Kolozaridi ix CONTENTS Part II Digital Sources and Methods 297 17 Corpora in Text-Based Russian Studies 299 Mikhail Kopotev, Arto Mustajoki, and Anastasia Bonch-Osmolovskaya 18 RuThes Thesaurus for Natural Language Processing 319 Natalia Loukachevitch and Boris Dobrov 19 Social Media-based Research of Interpersonal and Group Communication in Russia 335 Olessia Koltsova, Alexander Porshnev, and Yadviga Sinyavskaya 20 Digitizing Archives in Russia: Epistemic Sovereignty and Its Challenges in the Digital Age 353 Alexey Golubev 21 Affordances of Digital Archives: The Case of the Prozhito Archive of Personal Diaries 371 Ekaterina Kalinina 22 Open Government Data in Russia 389 Olga Parkhimovich and Daria Gritsenko 23 Topic Modeling in Russia: Current Approaches and Issues in Methodology 409 Svetlana S. Bodrunova 24 Topic Modeling Russian History 427 Mila Oiva 25 Studying Ideational Change in Russian Politics with Topic Models and Word Embeddings 443 Andrey Indukaev x CONTENTS 26 Deep Learning for the Russian Language 465 Ekaterina Artemova 27 Shifting the Norm: The Case of Academic Plagiarism Detection 483 Mikhail Kopotev, Andrey Rostovtsev, and Mikhail Sokolov 28 Automatic Sentiment Analysis of Texts: The Case of Russian 501 Natalia Loukachevitch 29 Social Network Analysis in Russian Literary Studies 517 Frank Fischer and Daniil Skorinkin 30 Tweeting Russian Politics: Studying Online Political Dynamics 537 Mikhail Zherebtsov and Sergei Goussev 31 The State of the Art: Surveying Digital Russian Art History 569 Reeta E. Kangas 32 Geospatial Data Analysis in Russia’s Geoweb 585 Mykola Makhortykh Index 605 xi N otes oN c oNtributors Olga Andreevskikh is a PhD candidate at the University of Leeds, UK. Her PhD thesis focuses on the verbal and visual communication of non- heteronormative masculinities in contemporary Russian media. Her other research projects focus on offline and online activism for women’s and LGBTQ rights in contemporary Russia. Ekaterina Artemova is a researcher at the National Researcher University Higher School of Economics (HSE University), Saint Petersburg, Russia. Her research interests include natural language processing in general as well as applications of deep learning to information extraction and question answering. Gregory Asmolov is Leverhulme Early Career Fellow at the Russia Institute, King’s College London. His research focuses on how ICTs constitute the role of crowds in crisis situations. He has published in Journalism Studies , Policy & Internet , Russian Politics , MIT’s Journal of Design and Science , and others on vertical crowdsourcing, digital propaganda, and Internet regulation. Svetlana S. Bodrunova is a professor at the School of Journalism and Mass Communications, St. Petersburg State University, Russia, where she also leads the Center for International Media Research. She has published two books, several chapters, and over 80 research papers in Russian and English, including in Journalism , International Journal of Communication , Media and Communication , and Digital Journalism Her research interests include Russian and European journalism, media and politics, social media, and ethnicity in communication. Anastasia Bonch-Osmolovskaya is an associate professor at the School of Linguistics, National Research University Higher School of Economics (HSE University), Saint Petersburg, Russia. She is also an academic supervisor of the master’s program in computational linguistics and the founder of the Digital Humanities Center at HSE. She is a member of the Russian Association for Digital Humanities (DH-Russia). Her main research interests concern digital archives, xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS linguistic and other textual corpora, and the implementation of quantitative meth- ods in the studies of language, literature, and culture. Boris Dobrov is the head of the Laboratory in Research Computing Center of Lomonosov Moscow State University in Moscow, Russia. He leads the development of software tools for processing and analyzing large text col- lections, including RuThes-like large linguistic ontologies, ALOT (Automated Linguistic Text Processing) tools, and NearIdx corporate information-analytical system. Frank Fischer is Associate Professor for Digital Humanities at the Higher School of Economics (HSE University), Saint Petersburg, Russia, and director of DARIAH-EU, the pan-European digital infrastructure for the arts and humanities. He studied computer science, German literature, and Spanish phi- lology in Leipzig and London and is an Ancien Pensionnaire de l’École Normale Supérieure in Paris. He holds a PhD from the University of Jena for a study of revenge in Enlightenment drama. Elizaveta Gaufman is Assistant Professor of Russian Discourse and Politics at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. She is the author of Security Threats and Public Perception: Digital Russia and the Ukraine Crisis (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017). Her other publications include peer-reviewed articles on nationalism, sexuality, and social networks, as well as regular blog posts at The Duck of Minerva Alexey Golubev is Assistant Professor of Russian History and Digital Humanities at the University of Houston. He holds a PhD degree in history from the University of British Columbia (2016). Before starting his current position, he was Banting Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Toronto. Sergei Goussev is an independent scholar whose research focuses on compu- tational propaganda, social media analytics, and political sociology of digital social networks. He holds a master’s degree in financial economics from Carleton University, Canada. Daria Gritsenko is an assistant professor at the University of Helsinki, Finland, affiliated with the Aleksanteri Institute and the Helsinki Center for Digital Humanities (HELDIG). She is a co-founder of Digital Russia Studies, an interdisciplinary network of scholars working at the intersection of “digital” and “social” in Russia and beyond. Alexander Gurkov is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Helsinki, Faculty of Law. He researches international cooperative law, alternative dispute resolution, and blockchain economy. Before working in academia, Gurkov practiced law as an attorney in St. Petersburg. xiii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS Galina Gurova is a researcher at the SKOLKOVO Education Development Centre with expertise in the field of school education. She currently pursues a PhD degree at the Doctoral Programme of Education and Society at the University of Tampere, Finland, and is a member of the EduKnow— Knowledge, Power, and Politics in Education research group at the same university. Olga Gurova is Assistant Professor of Consumption Studies at Aalborg University, Denmark. Her research interests include consumption studies, social theory, and qualitative methods of social research. She is the author of Fashion and the Consumer Revolution in Contemporary Russia (2015) and sev- eral articles, published in the Journal of Consumer Culture , Consumption, Markets and Culture , and Cultural Studies , among other journals. Andrey Indukaev is a postdoctoral researcher at the Aleksanteri Institute of the University of Helsinki. He is a member of the Digital Russia Studies research group, working on the politics of digitalization in Russia and develop- ing digital methods of textual analysis. His doctoral dissertation, defended in 2018 (ENS Paris-Saclay, France), focused on innovation policy and academic entrepreneurship in Russia. Ekaterina Kalinina is a senior lecturer at the Department of Media and Communication Studies of Jönköping University, Sweden. She worked as a research fellow at Swedish National Defense University, researching questions of Russian patriotism and biopolitics. Her recent research project investigated the role of affective mnemonic experiences in triggering social mobilization. Kalinina also runs the Swedish NGO Nordkonst, where she manages cul- tural projects. Reeta E. Kangas is a postdoctoral researcher in the School of Art History at the University of Turku. Her research focuses on Soviet and Russian visual art and propaganda and the use of animal symbols for political purposes. In 2017, she completed a PhD on animal symbolism in Soviet political cartoons. Victor Khroul is an associate professor at the Department of Sociology of Mass Communications, Faculty of Journalism, Lomonosov Moscow State University. He is the author of Media and Religion in Russia (2012) and over 90 publications in Russian and English. He is the founding editor of the “Media and Religion” book series (published since 2011). Polina Kolozaridi is a social researcher focusing on the Internet. Her key research interests are around the issues of how we know, feel, anticipate, and imag- ine technologies. In Moscow, Kolozaridi coordinates a grassroots community of researchers (academic and independent) called the Club for Internet and Society Enthusiasts (http://clubforinternet.net/). Together with other club members, she organizes research projects and acts as a knowledge activist. She teaches courses about Internet studies, amateur online media, and critical data studies at the Higher School of Economics (HSE University), Saint Petersburg, Russia. xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS Olessia Koltsova is an associate professor at the Department of Sociology of the St. Petersburg School of Social Sciences and Humanities, Higher School of Economics (HSE University), Saint Petersburg, Russia. She is the director of the Laboratory for Internet Studies (LINIS) at HSE. Her research interests include sociology of the Internet and of mass communication, political com- munication, online interpersonal communication, online social networks, text mining, big data analysis, and modeling. Mikhail Kopotev is the academic director of the MA program in Language Technology at Higher School of Economics (HSE University), Saint Petersburg, Russia, and an associate professor at the University of Helsinki, Finland. His research interests include corpus linguistics, quantitative analysis of big textual data, plagiarism detection, and computer-assisted language learning. He is the author of Introduction to Corpus Linguistics (Praha, 2014) and a co-editor of Quantitative Approaches to the Russian Language (Routledge, 2018). Markku Lonkila works as Professor of Sociology at the University of Jyväskylä. His research concerns the study of social movements, social media, social networks, and Russian society. Since the early 1990s, Lonkila has carried out several empirical research projects in Russia, investigating the role of social networks in civil society and economy and politics in Russia, often in a com- parative perspective. Of late, he has focused on new forms of Russian civic and political activism enabled by social media. Natalia Loukachevitch is a leading researcher at the Research Computing Center of Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia. She is the main author of several large Russian resources for natural language processing including RuThes thesaurus, Russian wordnet RuWordNet, the ontology on natural sci- ence and technologies OENT, and Russian sentiment lexicon RuSentiLex. She is the co-organizer of several Russian language evaluations such as senti- ment analysis evaluations SentiRuEval and semantic similarity evalua- tions RUSSE. Anna Lowry is a postdoctoral researcher at the Aleksanteri Institute of the University of Helsinki. She has published on a range of topics dealing with the political economy of Russia and Eurasia. Recent publications have focused on Russia’s development strategy and industrial policy. Mykola Makhortykh is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Bern. He holds a PhD from the University of Amsterdam, where he studied digital remembrance of WWII in Eastern Europe. Recently, he published on (coun- ter)memory, discursive construction of (in)security, and conflict framing in articles published in journals such as Media, War and Conflict , Memory Studies , and Visual Communication Daria Morozova is a PhD student at Aalborg University, Denmark. She holds a master’s degree in social sciences from the University of Helsinki. Her research focuses on sociology of consumption, cultural entrepreneurship, and xv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS sustainability. Her current project concerns wearable technology, particularly how it changes daily practices of consumers. Marianna Muravyeva is Professor of Russian Law and Administration at the University of Helsinki. Her research is interdisciplinary, bringing together history, social sciences, and law to examine long-term trends and patterns in social development with a special focus on normativity, gender, and violence. Arto Mustajoki is professor emeritus at the University of Helsinki. He is a leading research fellow at the National Research University Higher School of Economics (HSE University), Saint Petersburg, Russia. Mila Oiva is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Turku, Finland. She is an expert on Russian and Polish history with a particular interest in the transnational transfer of information and computational research meth- ods. Her work has been published by Media History , among others. Olga Parkhimovich is affiliated with the Faculty of Software Engineering and Computer Systems at ITMO University (ITMO: Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics). She is a project manager at the NGO Information Culture, the team leader of spending.gov.ru, and a member of the Public Council at the Federal Treasury of the Russian Federation. Nelli Piattoeva is University Lecturer in Education Sciences at the University of Tampere, Finland, and Adjunct Professor of International and Comparative Education Policy Research at the University of Oulu, Finland. Her research interest in the institutions of formal education is mainly focused on the complexities of the relationship between education policy-making and the wider society. Alexander Porshnev is a senior research fellow at the Laboratory of Internet Studies of the National Research University Higher School of Economics (HSE University), Saint Petersburg, Russia. His research interests include mathematical models and data mining in psychology, marketing and manage- ment (including social network analysis, cluster, factor, regression analysis, and machine learning methods), and natural language processing. Andrey Rostovtsev is a professor at the Institute for Information Transmission Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Kharkevich Institute) in Moscow, Russia. He is a co-founder of the Dissernet network project. Henrike Schmidt is a private lecturer at the Szondi-Institute for Comparative Literature, Freie Universität Berlin. Her research interests include digital cul- ture in Eastern and Central Europe. Her publications include the monograph Russian Literature on the Internet. Between Digital Folklore and Political xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS Propaganda (Transcript Verlag, 2011, in German). She is a co-editor of the online journal Studies in Russian, Eurasian and Central European New Media (digitalicons.org). Larisa Shpakovskaya holds a PhD in sociology and works on several research projects at the University of Helsinki, Finland. Her research interests include Internet communities on the Russian Internet, hate speech in the Russian- language segment of the Internet, state regulation of Runet, and processes of accumulating social capital in virtual communities and its conversion into a resource for mobilizing collective actions. Yadviga Sinyavskaya is a junior research fellow at the Laboratory for Internet Studies (LINIS) and a PhD student at the Department of Sociology, St. Petersburg School of Social Sciences and Humanities, Higher School of Economics (HSE University), Saint Petersburg, Russia. Her research interests include Internet studies, social psychology, online communication and online behavior, online privacy, social network analysis, and online experiments. Daniil Skorinkin is the head of the MA in digital humanities program at the Higher School of Economics (HSE University), Saint Petersburg, Russia. He teaches digital humanities and digital literacy courses and conducts research at the HSE Centre for Digital Humanities. His research interests include stylom- etry, network analysis of literary texts, and the use of computational methods for literary research. Mikhail Sokolov is Professor of Sociology at the European University at St. Petersburg, Russia. His principal research interests are in the fields of microso- ciological theory, social stratification, cultural consumption, sociology, and his- tory of the social sciences. Vlad Strukov is an associate professor at the University of Leeds, specializing in Russian and Russophone media and communication with special focus on visual culture and digital culture. He is the founding and principal editor of a research journal called Studies in Russian, Eurasian and Central European New Media (www.digitalicons.org). Philip Torchinsky is an independent scholar who has specialized in computer networks from 1993 onward. His current interests in social media include technology marketing and messenger bots. He has co-authored a booklet on hate speech on Runet while working as the head of the Computer Science Center at the European University at St. Petersburg. Mariëlle Wijermars is Assistant Professor of Cyber-Security and Politics at Maastricht University, The Netherlands. She is a co-founder of the Digital Russia Studies network and an editor of the journal Studies in Russian, Eurasian xvii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS and Central European New Media (digitalicons.org). She is the author of Memory Politics in Contemporary Russia: Television, Cinema and the State (2019) and editor (with Katja Lehtisaari) of Freedom of Expression in Russia’s New Mediasphere (2020). Mikhail Zherebtsov is an adjunct research professor at the Institute of European, Russian and Eurasian Studies at Carleton University. His research interests are focused on contemporary issues of governance and public policy in Russia and other post-Soviet countries as well as computational political studies, particularly social media analytics. xix Fig. 17.1 Frequency of adjective decade constructions for each decade 307 Fig. 17.2 Distribution of rannie (early) and pozdnie (late) in decade constructions 308 Fig. 17.3 Frequencies of lihie devânostye (wild nineties) compared to all adjectives attested in the construction (2001–2013, the Newspaper subcorpus) 309 Fig. 17.4 The relative frequency (%) of modernizaciâ (modernization) occurring in texts from Russian national newspapers (Source: Integrum, Dec. 31, 2000—Dec. 31, 2012) 311 Fig. 17.5 The usage of modernizaciâ Rossii (modernization of Russia) in comparison to importozames ̂ enie (import substitution) (Source: Integrum, Russian National Media, 2013–2015) 313 Fig. 18.1 Representation of the current international sanctions situation in the thesaurus form 329 Fig. 21.1 Prozhito . User interface 376 Fig. 21.2 Prozhito . Author page 377 Fig. 21.3 Prozhito . The page Pomos ̂ ’ (Help), where volunteers can learn how they can contribute to the project 378 Fig. 21.4 Prozhito . A suggested page of a diary 379 Fig. 24.1 The ten topics covered in newspaper articles that discussed Yves Montand’s 1956 tour of the Soviet Union 435 Fig. 24.2 The top eight topics in the Polish Z ̇ ycie Gospodarcze newspaper, 1950–1980 436 Fig. 25.1 “Modernization” topic prevalence dynamic 456 Fig. 25.2 Projection of keywords on a two-dimensional space 459 Fig. 26.1 Neural network layers. ( a ) feed forward layer, ( b ) convolutional building layer, ( c ) recurrent layer, ( d ) transformer layer 469 Fig. 26.2 Word2vec configurations. ( a ) continuous bag of words, ( b ) skip-gram 471 Fig. 27.1 A network in the MGPU producing large-scale plagiarism (A. Abalkina, Dissernet.org). The full interactive graph is available at: https://www.dissernet.org/publications/mpgu_graf.htm 491 L ist of f igures xx LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 27.2 The overall distribution of small-scale plagiarism across disciplines 495 Fig. 29.1 The seven bridges of Königsberg. Wikimedia Commons, https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:7_bridges.svg, licence: CC BY-SA 3.0 518 Fig. 29.2 Extracted social networks of 20 Russian plays. Excerpt (left-upper corner) from a larger poster displaying 144 plays in chronological order (1747–1940s). Version in full resolution: https://doi. org/10.6084/m9.figshare.12058179 521 Fig. 29.3 Network graph for Ostrovsky’s Groza 522 Fig. 29.4 Network sizes of 144 Russian plays in chronological order, x-axis: (normalized) year of publication, y-axis: number of speaking entities per play. Arrow indicates Pushkin’s “Boris Godunov.” Russian Drama Corpus (https://dracor.org/rus) 526 Fig. 29.5 Network visualization of A. Pushkin’s Boris Godunov . Russian Drama Corpus (https://dracor.org/rus) 527 Fig. 29.6 Network visualization of L. Tolstoy’s War and Peace 530 Fig. 29.7 Network visualization of L. Tolstoy’s War and Peace , book 1 (first part of the first volume) 531 Fig. 29.8 Network visualization of L. Tolstoy’s War and Peace , book 10 (second part of the third volume) 531 Fig. 29.9 Network visualization of L. Tolstoy’s War and Peace , epilogue 532 Fig. 29.10 Network densities of separate books (parts) of War and Peace 532 Fig. 30.1 The structure of political communities on Twitter by event 543 Fig. 30.2 Clique size frequency distribution by community—Crimea sample 545 Fig. 30.3 Clique size frequency distribution by community— Medvedev sample 545 Fig. 30.4 Influence of leaders’ content, distribution across quantiles 549 Fig. 30.5 Pro-government community reaction to Medvedev’s comment to pensioners in Crimea 555 Fig. 30.6 Opposition community reaction of disbelief to Belykh’s guilt 556 Fig. 30.7 First and second quantile breakdown of account types by political communities 561 Fig. 30.8 Change in influence of leaders’ accounts when centrality compliments the impact of their distributed content 561 Fig. 30.9 Tweet patterns for the two main communities, tweets per hour by event 562 xxi Table 4.1 Main indicators of the national program “Digital Economy of the Russian Federation” (2018) 58 Table 8.1 European Social Survey questions on various forms of activism (European Social Survey Round 8 Data 2016) 141 Table 11.1 Religions and digital media normative expectations 192 Table 13.1 Classification of online retail platforms in Russia 226 Table 17.1 Russian National Corpus: texts by subcorpora 304 Table 17.2 Russian National Corpus: texts by creation date (the main subcorpus only) 305 Table 17.3 Frequency of adjective decade constructions for each decade 307 Table 18.1 Types and examples of part-whole relations in RuThes 326 Table 18.2 Examples of conceptual dependence relations denoted as nonsymmetrical associations in RuThes 328 Table 19.1 SNS use in Russia according to media research (October 2018, in mil) 337 Table 22.1 Cumulative effect of using applications based on open data in Moscow’s public transport system 404 Table 25.1 Top-30 semantic neighbors of the word modernizaciâ (modernization) before and after January 1, 2012. Neighbors appearing only in one list are highlighted 458 Table 26.1 Word embeddings for Russian 472 Table 26.2 Tools to train word embeddings 472 Table 26.3 Two examples of sequence labeling tasks 475 Table 26.4 Transfer learning models for Russian 477 Table 27.1 A source text (left) and the copy-pasted text after OCR (right) 486 Table 27.2 A source text (left) and the paraphrased text (right) 487 Table 27.3 A source text (left) and the translated text (right) 488 Table 27.4 Percentage of borrowing in dissertations defended at various Russian institutions 496 Table 27.5 Differences in publication and citation performance among authors demonstrating the highest and the lowest amount of borrowing 497 L ist of t abLes