Women in the Bible, Qumran and Early Rabbinic Literature Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah Edited by George J. Brooke Associate Editors Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar Jonathan Ben-Dov Alison Schofield VOLUME 110 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/stdj Women in the Bible, Qumran and Early Rabbinic Literature Their Status and Roles By Paul Heger LEIDEN | BOSTON This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial 3.0 Unported (CC-BY-NC 3.0) License, which permits any non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Heger, Paul, 1924– Women in the Bible, Qumran, and early Rabbinic literature ; their status and roles / by Peter Heger. pages cm. — (Studies on the texts of the desert of Judah, ISSN 0169-9962 ; VOLUME 110 504 Includes bibliographical references and index.) ISBN 978-90-04-27691-8 (hardback : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-90-04-27711-3 (e-book) 1. Women in the Bible. 2. Women in rabbinical literature. I. Title. BS575.H44 2014 296.1082—dc23 2014012751 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual ‘Brill’ typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, ipa, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see brill.com/brill-typeface. issn 0169-9962 isbn 9�� 90 0� 2�6�1 � (hardback) isbn 9�� 90 0� 2��11 3 (e-book) Copyright 2014 by Paul Heger. This work is published by Koninklijke Brill NV. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Global Oriental and Hotei Publishing. 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To my family and worldwide friends, who encouraged me to take the demanding path of transition to academic activity at an advanced age, and assisted me in overcoming the manifold obstacles on that uphill road. ∵ Contents Preface and Acknowledgements xiii Introduction 1 Methodology 5 Plan of the Book 5 Sources 7 part 1 1 The Creation Narrative and the Status of Women 11 1.1 Introduction 11 1.2 The Biblical Text: Problems and Interpretations 11 1.2.1 Key Textual Differences between the Creation Narratives of Gen 1 and 2 11 1.2.2 Textual Issues in the Creation Narrative of Gen 2 12 1.2.3 Interpreting the Phrase עזר כנגדו 14 1.2.4 Implications of Man’s Prior Creation 18 1.2.5 The Creation of Woman from Man (Gen 2:21–24) 22 1.2.6 God’s Presentation of Eve to Adam, and His Reaction 26 1.2.7 Scholarly Opinions and Interpretations 32 1.2.8 Male-Female Equality or Inequality as a Consequence of the Creation Narrative 35 1.3 Qumran’s Possible Understanding of the Creation Narrative and Its Legal Ramifications 39 1.4 Rabbinic Interpretation of the Creation Narrative: Positive and Negative Attitudes towards Women in Midrashim 42 1.5 Conclusion 45 2 Interpretations of the Fall Narrative 46 2.1 Introduction 46 2.2 The Biblical Text: Problems and Interpretations 47 2.2.1 Close Textual Analysis of Gen 3:1–14 47 2.2.2 Gen 3:14–24: Distinct Retributions for Adam and Eve 52 2.2.3 Jubilees’ Intentional Changes to the Biblical Text 60 2.2.4 Scriptural Attitudes towards Women 64 viii contents 2.2.5 Excursus: Is Jubilees’ Attitude towards Women Negative or Positive? 72 2.2.6 Intermediate Summary 77 2.3 Qumran Interpretation of the Woman’s Role in the Fall Narrative 78 2.3.1 Hypotheses of Woman’s Role in the Fall Event 78 2.3.2 No Allegation of Sexual Misbehaviour of Women in Qumran Writings 80 2.4 The Rabbinic Interpretation of the Fall Narrative 83 2.4.1 Midrashim with Negative Views towards Women 83 2.4.2 Midrashim Attributing Guilt to Adam, Mitigating Eve’s Guilt 86 2.4.3 Rabbinic Attitudes towards Women: A Brief Overview 89 2.4.4 Rabbinic Rules of Behaviour for Contact with Women and Their Interpretation 90 2.5 Underlying Philosophy and Theology of Rabbinic Midrashim and Quasi- Halakhot 92 2.5.1 Women’s Character: The Dinah Affair 92 2.5.2 Frymer-Kensky’s Theory 94 2.5.3 Rabbinic Conceptions of Men’s Character 97 2.6 Deducing the Theology and Philosophy Underlying Rabbinic Literature 100 2.6.1 General Principles, Criteria, and Premises 100 2.6.2 Assessing Contrasting Midrashim and Pronouncements 101 2.6.3 Summarizing Rabbinic Opinion 103 2.7 Conclusion, Part 1: Interpretations of the Creation and Fall Narratives 105 part 2 3 The Father’s Authority and Responsibility, and Their Limitations: A Debate with Scholarly Theories 113 3.1 Introduction 113 3.2 Slavery and Manumission for Israelite Women: Scriptural Rules 113 3.3 Rabbinic Rules Relating to Male and Female Minors 124 3.4 Plausible Attitude of Qumran towards the Father’s Authority 126 3.5 A General Reflection on the Status of Women in Jewish Writings 128 ix contents 4 Women’s Obligations to Fulfill Biblical Precepts 131 4.1 Introduction 131 4.2 Scriptural Attitudes towards Women’s Obligations 132 4.2.1 Scriptural Commands That Lack Precision about Gender 132 4.2.2 Did Women Participate in the Revelation at Sinai? An Analysis of the Scriptural Text 133 4.2.3 The Range of העם and עדה 139 4.2.4 Ramifications of Women’s Absence from the Revelation at Sinai 141 4.2.5 The Husband’s Authority to Decide Which Precepts His Wife Must Fulfill: The Evidence 143 4.3 Rabbinic Viewpoints on Women’s Obligations to Fulfill Biblical Precepts 148 4.3.1 Did Women Participate in the Sinai Revelation? Rabbinic Opinions 148 4.3.2 Rabbinic Attitudes towards Women’s Obligations: Introduction 152 4.3.3 Rabbinic Theories and Their Textual and Practical Background 154 4.3.4 How Women’s Obligations Became Institutionalized 162 4.4 Debating Safrai’s Theory on the Sequence of the Developmental Stages 163 4.4.1 Consequences from the Rabbinic Midrashim about the Rules for Teaching Women 163 4.4.2 Additional Evidence against Safrai’s Theory 165 4.5 Qumranic Attitudes on Woman’s Obligations to Fulfill Biblical Precepts 170 4.5.1 Introduction 170 4.5.2 Implicit Deductions from Qumranic Texts 170 4.6 Conclusion 174 5 Were Women Members of the Eda–Yahad ? 176 5.1 Scriptural Commands That Lack Precision about Gender 176 5.2 Qumran’s Principle of Eda , the Yahad Holy Community, and Its Legal Implications 176 5.3 References to Yahad in Qumran Writings: Differing Scholarly Proposals 184 5.4 Sharing Wealth of Members in 1QS and in CD: Identical or Different? 189 5.4.1 1QS Community Rules Texts 190 5.4.2 Harmonization of Apparent Inconsistencies 192 x contents 5.5 Interim Conclusion 195 5.6 Debating Schuller’s and Grossman’s Theories 197 5.6.1 The Status of Women and Children in the Eda 197 5.6.2 Schuller’s Interpretation 199 5.6.3 Grossman’s Interpretation 204 5.6.4 Further Debates on Women’s Status in Qumran 208 5.7 Debating Wassen’s Theory 213 6 The Polygamy Rules of CD IV:20–V:2 and 11Q19 LVII:15−19 and Their Sources: Implications for Divorce and Remarriage 220 6.1 Introduction 220 6.2 The Interpretation of CD IV:20–V:1: Disputing Schremer’s Theory 222 6.3 Motivations and Sources of the Prohibition on Polygamy in CD 225 6.3.1 The Motivation for the Prohibition: Wassen’s Conjecture 225 6.3.2 The Biblical Source of the Polygamy Prohibition in the CD 226 6.3.2.1 Lev 18:18 or a Logical Consideration of Gen 1:27 and 7:9? 226 6.3.2.2 The Meaning of זנות : Debating Gruber’s Narrow Interpretation 228 6.3.2.3 Further Arguments against Gruber’s Theory 230 6.3.3 The Source of the Prohibition on Polygamy in 11Q19 LVII:15–19 235 6.3.4 Further Questions on the Polygamy Prohibition 238 6.3.5 Thoughts on the Motive behind Qumran’s Prohibition of Polygamy 239 6.3.6 Interim Conclusion on the Source of the Polygamy Prohibition in the CD 240 6.4 Does CD Prohibit Divorce? 241 6.4.1 Shemesh’s Theory : Sexual Intercourse between a Man and an Unmarried Woman Is Equivalent to Marriage 244 6.4.2 Vered Noam’s Theory That Qumran Followed the Rule of the Ancient Halakah, Prohibiting Divorce Altogether 247 7 Asceticism in Scripture and in Qumran and Rabbinic Literature 249 7.1 Introduction 249 7.2 What Is Asceticism? 250 7.3 Fraade on Rabbinic Asceticism 252 xi contents 7.4 The Biblical Attitude towards Pleasure: The Antithesis of Asceticism 262 7.4.1 The Scriptural Concept of Fasting 265 7.5 Pleasure and Self-Denial in the Rabbinic Literature 267 7.5.1 Boyarin’s Thesis: The Good and Evil Desires 267 7.5.2 Rabbinic Attitude towards Pleasure 270 7.6 Fraade’s Thesis: Obstacles to Spiritual Fulfillment 272 7.6.1 Fraade’s Definition of Perushim 275 7.6.2 Self-Denial of Pleasure during Mourning Is Not Asceticism 279 7.6.3 Nazirite Abstention Is Not Asceticism 282 7.6.4 The Rabbinic Concept of Fasting 288 7.7 Asceticism in the Qumran Texts 292 7.7.1 Preliminary Considerations 292 7.7.2 Fraade’s Thesis : An Ascetic Community in Qumran? 293 7.8 Conclusion 298 8 Genealogy and Holiness of Seed in Second Temple Judaism: Facts or Creative Supposition? 302 8.1 Introduction 302 8.2 Genealogical Purity or Cultural Survival? 303 8.2.1 The Nature of Restrictions on Marriage in Second Temple Judaism 303 8.2.2 The Basis of the Qumranic Marriage Rules of 4Q271 and 4Q396 308 8.3 Interpreting Ezra and Nehemiah on Intermarriage 311 8.3.1 The Relevant Texts and Their Main Meaning 311 8.3.2 Ezra and Nehemiah’s Motivation in Extending Prohibition of Intermarriage 312 8.3.3 Ethnicity and Intermarriage 314 8.3.4 The Problematic Concept of “Holy Seed” 316 8.3.5 Interpreting Pollution and Cleansing 322 8.4 Disputing Hayes’ Theory 324 8.4.1 The Core of the Theory 324 8.4.2 מעל : Desecration or Transgression? 328 8.4.3 The Significance of the asham (Guilt) Offering 330 8.4.4 Intermarriage: Cultural Dilution, Not Profanation 332 8.4.5 Disputing Hayes’ Support from Tobit 333 8.4.6 Disputing Hayes’ Support from Jubilees 335 8.4.7 Concluding Reflections 340 xii contents 8.5 Disputing Hayes on Qumran’s Attitude towards Intermarriage 340 8.5.1 The Meaning of זרע and זנות in Qumran Literature 342 8.5.2 The Meaning of מעל in Qumran Literature 345 8.5.3 Disputing Hayes’ Interpretation of the Phinehas Narrative 348 8.5.4 Hayes’ Interpretation and Ezra’s Intentions 350 8.5.5 In Conclusion: Ezra’s Prohibition in Relation to Divine Law 353 8.6 Conversion and the “Holy Seed” Theory 354 8.6.1 Qumran and Converts 355 8.6.2 The Meanings of ger and ezrakh 357 8.7 Conclusion 364 8.8 Appendix: The Term טמא in Scripture, Qumran and Rabbinic Literature, and Scholarship 365 Epilogue: Some Reflections 375 Bibliography of Works Cited 379 Citations Index 398 Preface and Acknowledgements I began this book in hopes of having it published to mark my ninetieth birthday and the culmination of my academic career, begun in 1996 after the awarding of my doctor- ate. My intensive studies in a renowned Yeshiva in Jerusalem in my youth (until the age of 19), my various activities, travels and life in many countries and finally my academic studies instilled in me the determination to perform a comparison among the atti- tudes towards women exhibited by the three main sources of Jewish culture: Scripture, Qumran, and early rabbinic writings. I hope in this book to have succeeded in presenting to readers a well-documented, rational, and unbiased portrayal of the different aspects of the approach to women in these sources from historical and practical perspectives. The maxim: לא טוב היות האדם לבדו “It is no good for the man to be alone,” (Gen 2:18), the biblical foundation of the gender issue, may be interpreted as intend- ing that a person cannot succeed alone. I am deeply indebted to those who כי הביאתני עד הלם “have brought me this far” (2 Sam 7:18): my mentors and teachers, who guided and assisted me in the challenging transition from my previous activities into my aca- demic pursuits, and my transmutation from a businessman into an academic scholar. I cannot recount here all my teachers at York University, where I started my academic studies, and at the University of Toronto, which conferred Bachelors, Masters, and Doctoral degrees on me; I appreciate all those individuals who contributed to my intellectual development, and thank them anonymously. I am, however, most particu- larly indebted to Professor Harry Fox, who guided my first steps at the University of Toronto, prepared for me an array of courses to provide the necessary fundamental knowledge, and facilitated the challenging adaptation of my general Weltanschaung to academic perspectives. He counselled me in the choice and writing of my disserta- tion, and graciously continues to provide me with invaluable advice. Similarly, it is my great pleasure to thank Professor Florentino García Martínez, who guided my entry into the world of Qumran in general, and edited my two previous books on Qumran subjects. His personal kindness towards his disciples, among whom I am honoured to count myself, greatly facilitated my learning from him and rendered his guidance as enjoyable as it was beneficial. At this juncture of my life and my academic activity, I also wish to thank Professor Günter Stemberger, who edited my book on the Talmud and enhanced its quality by his tireless advice and invaluable suggestions, founded on a vast knowledge of the subject. Last but not least, I am indebted to Professor Otto Kaiser, who accepted my first book for publication in the Series BZAW , and encouraged me to make academic research the focus of this second stage of my life. I wish to thank my friend Professor Herbert Basser, who consistently reads my writ- ings, offering valuable comments and advice; I am much indebted to him for the avoid- ance of possible pitfalls. Finally I extend my appreciation to Ms. Sylvia Hunter and Dr. Tom Moss Gamblin, the editors of this book. © paul heger, ���4 | doi ��.��63/9789004�77��3_�0� This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported (CC-BY-NC 3.0) License. Introduction The status of women in contemporary society has lately become a matter of great interest in the context of women’s desire to gain equal rights in Western and, increasingly, global society. Some writers and thinkers, feminist and otherwise, blame the Bible, both Old and New Testaments, as a significant factor in, if not the source of, women’s historically disadvantaged status in Western societies. The narratives of the Creation and of the Fall were inter- preted in both Jewish and Christian writings in ways highly detrimental to women. On the other hand, one must consider that these interpretations were at least partially portraying the real conditions in the societies of their period, and these writings should not be perceived as the primary instigators of these conditions; they should rather be considered as justifying the prevailing state of affairs regarding the status of women and supporting their continuation. These circumstances in Israelite society were more favourable for women than in the surrounding cultures in some respects, and more disadvantageous in others. The Israelites absorbed and adapted to their own creed and philosophy many of the rules and customs of the neighbouring nations, but their original, foreign source may still be apprehended in many instances. Since the Old Testament—particularly the narratives about Creation and Fall, which influ- enced the Israelites’ approach towards women—preceded reinterpretations in the New Testament and in Qumran and rabbinic writings by many centur- ies, it seems appropriate to analyse the original Old Testament texts without preconceptions, attempting as far as possible to exclude the influence of their interpretation by the later traditional writings with which we are imbued. A close independent reading of the relevant Old Testament texts is likely to offer clues for sociological scholars about the social changes that occurred during the centuries between their redaction and their first written interpretations. The same applies to social changes in the interval between the Qumran and rabbinic writings, which may well have been strongly influenced by the quite distinct circumstances before and after the Temple’s destruction; the impact of the Hellenistic culture, with its antagonistic stance on women, may also have contributed to the evolution of a negative posture towards them. This book compares attitudes towards women in general, with particular reference to the relevant halakhot and conduct guidelines relating to women, in the Old Testament, in Qumran writings, and in rabbinic literatures.1 Since 1 For practical reasons, I use the term Qumran to denote the writings found in the Dead Sea region; my use of this terminology is not intended to convey any assumption regarding 2 introduction we may assume that the authors of both the latter literatures deduced their divergent doctrinal and legal principles and decisions from their particular interpretations of Scripture, the intention of the book in the first instance is to reveal scriptural attitudes by means of such an unbiased reading of the rel- evant biblical texts. The book is divided into two parts. Part 1 undertakes a thorough analysis of the biblical narratives of the Creation of humans and of the Fall, and discusses implicit Qumranic and explicit rabbinic interpretations of these biblical texts. In contrast to the rabbis, who generated an ample literature of midrashim and aphorisms as well as rules of conduct and halakhot founded on their inter- pretations of the relevant biblical texts, as emerges from their diverse liter- ature, we do not possess a comparable wealth of writings from the Qumran library, and must attempt to deduce or infer the Qumran scholars’ presumed interpretations from the scarcity of texts that are available relating to women. The comparison of the results offers us a fairly credible comprehension of the underlying attitude towards women in both corpora, with particular respect to women’s legal and social status, insofar as one can deduce actual circum- stances from textual evidence. In Part 2, I widen the scope of the research to examine in more depth the great variety of legal and doctrinal consequences of the interpretations of the relevant biblical texts in the two later corpora. These rules offer us a wider per- spective on these societies’ attitudes towards women and their social and legal status, as well as some insight on the Qumranic and rabbinic frame of mind regarding the ethics and implications of sexual activity in general, according to the presumption of each group that it possessed the requisite knowledge for the correct understanding of the Torah’s decrees and its underlying intent and philosophy. I shall not examine whether these writings express actual circumstances or desired conditions in Israelite society,2 nor shall I discuss the archives from the authors of these texts or whether the site called Qumran represented the centre of the Essenes’ culture. 2 Susan Niditch, “Portrayals of Women in the Hebrew Bible,” in Jewish Women in Historical Perspective (2nd ed.; ed. Judith R. Baskin; Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1998) 25–45 at 29, states that “we must always remember that biblical law is material edited, preserved, codified, and presented in literature, and not necessarily a reflection of actual lives.” Sidnie White Crawford, “Not According to Rule: Women, The Dead Sea Scrolls and Qumran,” in Emanuel: Studies in Hebrew Bible, Septuagint and Dead Sea Scrolls in Honor of Emanuel Tov (ed. Shalom M. Paul et al.; Leiden: Brill, 2002) 127–50 at 129, writes, “therefore what they [the Qumran writings] have to say about women is primarily prescriptive and presents what is to them the ideal situation.” Tal Ilan, “Women in Jewish Life and Law,” in The Cambridge History 3 introduction the Dead Sea, that is, of Babatha and Salome, since they appear to refer to cir- cumstances and legal documents formulated according to Roman and Greek laws rather than according to Jewish law, the subject of this inquiry. I shall also avoid making judgements as to whether Christianity improved or wors- ened the status of women, although reflecting on this topic may sometimes be unavoidable when parallel texts are compared. Instead, I intend to concen- trate on comparing the attitude towards women that transpires from an unbi- ased reading of Scripture (i.e., without the influence of rabbinic or Qumranic interpretations) with those of the two later corpora. We must discern between a reading of Scripture in terms of biblical lexicon, syntax, and grammar, and Scripture as read by the rabbis, who convey their view of God’s will,3 asserting that this is God’s intended message.4 Rabbinic sources will be more abundantly quoted, since they offer us a great array of midrashim that tend to reflect the rabbis’ various overall psychological and practical disposition towards women, the foundation of the matter-of-fact nature of their halakhot . Qumran sources do not contain comparable texts, and we can only attempt to deduce their authors’ attitude towards women from the few halakhic and doctrinal writings on this topic that appear in these sources.5 My thesis contests the conventional opinion that the narrative of the Fall6 in Gen 3 attaches a stigma to women, accusing them of causing humankind’s of Judaism , Vol. 4 (ed. W.D. Davies and Louis Finkelstein; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) 627–46 at 628, writes that legal codices “posit an ideal society, and many of their rulings may hint more at behaviour they wish to encourage or to combat than at standards currently practised.” 3 See Jacob Neusner, How the Rabbis Liberated Women (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1998) xiii. 4 See Paul Heger, “Halakhic Disputes between Rabbis and Qumranic Authors,” Estudios Bíblicos 69,3 (2011) 323–336 at 325: “They [the Rabbis] implied that their interpretation, the intentio lectoris , the understanding of the reader of the text, and the intentio operis , the meaning of the text represents the genuine intentio auctoris , the author’s intent even when it seems opposed to the plain meaning of the text.” See Maxine Grossman, Reading for History in the Damascus Document: A Methodological Study (Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2009), 18 on the modern aspects of interpreting texts. 5 We do not appear to possess any commentaries on or use of Canticles in the Qumran litera- ture from which to deduce their interpretations of this erotic text, though we do find many fragments of it in their Library. 6 Because rabbinic and traditional Jewish writings lack a short sobriquet for the biblical nar- rative of man’s first disobedience to God’s command and his eviction from Paradise, I use for convenience the Christian term “Fall.” The impact and consequences of this event are utterly different in the two faiths, however; in effect, it has no implications for Jewish doctrines and is not a topic of intense discussion in Jewish writings. Claus Westermann, Genesis 1–11: A Commentary (trans. John J. Scullion SJ; Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing, 1984) 4 introduction expulsion from Paradise and its consequent calamities. This ingrained opin- ion in Western society is a result of biased interpretations of this scriptural narrative in rabbinic and early Christian cultures.7 This book will question such interpretations, offering an alternative unbiased reading of the biblical narrative. Women’s position in ancient Israelite society has, as I see it, two distinct aspects: legal status and social standing. Woman’s legal status as a dependent entity with no right to accomplish her personal will8 is deduced from and jus- tified by the Creation narrative in Gen 2, which portrays woman as a part or appendage of man, and from relevant biblical language and rules. However, there are no denigrating insinuations regarding women’s social standing in an unbiased reading of the Fall narrative in Gen 3, which even from the legal aspect is most accurately read as reinforcing woman’s subordinate sta- tus rather than punishing her for instigating the Fall.9 Qumran’s unprejudiced legal and social attitude towards women, based on a straightforward interpre- tation of scriptural texts, will be contrasted with the more complex rabbinic attitude, based on midrashic locutions about the portrayal of women, their character, their legal position, and rules of behaviour with a mandatory char- acter. Many examples will be presented to corroborate the study’s postulates and conclusions. 276, writes, “The narrative of Gen 2–3 does not speak of a fall. One should avoid therefore a description which differs so much from the text and is so inaccurate and deceptive.” 7 According to Dan W. Clanton, Jr., Daring, Disreputable and Devout; Interpreting the Bible’s Women in the Arts and Music (New York: T. & T. Clark International, 2009) 1–2, many com- monly held assumptions about biblical women originate from layers of retellings and com- mentaries; “in many cases,” he writes, “these later interpreters have often adapted and altered the Bible to fit their own view(s) of the stories.” 8 The husband’s authority to annul his wife’s vows and oaths may, for example, have been an innovation of Scripture, rather than a justification of an existent custom. 9 Cf. Dvora E. Weisberg, “Women and Torah Study in Aggadah,” in Women and Judaism: New Insights and Scholarship (ed. Frederick E. Greenspahn; New York: New York University Press, 2009) 41–63 at 52, who in her portrayal of the rabbinic attitude towards women bun- dles together the consequences of the Creation and Fall narratives: “The creation story in Genesis 2 and the story of Adam and Eve’s expulsion from the Garden of Eden in Genesis 3 are used by the rabbis to assert gender differences and to explain and justify the subordinate position of women.” 5 introduction Methodology Scholarship on the status of women in Scripture and in Qumranic and rabbinic literatures has often been guided by biased preconceptions in both directions. Some scholars are convinced a priori that a negative attitude towards women is found in all three corpora; on the other hand, some feminist scholars are extremely critical of rabbinic literature’s approach to women, emphasizing the negative dicta and midrashim , while others have attempted, by all possible means, to read into biblical and particularly Qumran literatures excessively positive attitudes towards women that, in my view, are not supported by the text. Just as some rabbinic midrashim use every “trick of the trade” to demon- strate an intrinsic connection between the relevant scriptural verse and their own interpretation, regardless of its philological or essential remoteness from the original text, feminist scholars have sometimes emulated this approach in order to demonstrate in Qumran writings the equality of women in the objects of their research. Cecilia Wassen and Judith Wegner criticize these biased approaches, each from different perspectives.10 I shall endeavour, as far as possible, to detach my reading of the ancient writings, their interpretation, and my conclusions from any ideological background of a cultural nature, and from the general influence of contemporary ways of thought. In addition to an unbiased interpretation of the biblical narratives of the Creation and the Fall, Part 1 of the book will analyse the Qumran scholars’ understanding of the relevant biblical texts, as far as they can be gleaned, mostly implicitly, from their writings, as well as rabbinic perspectives on these issues, as may be observed from their ample writings on the subject, both mid- rashic and halakhic. Part 2 will consider ideological deductions from the writ- ings of the three corpora, relevant to the topic of gender and its ramifications, as well as legal and practical implications for the status of women in its widest definition. Plan of the Book Part 1, Chapter 1 examines the biblical texts of Creation in Gen 1 and 2, prof- fering a meticulous interpretation of these verses, and conjectures about the 10 Cecilia Wassen, Women in the Damascus Document (Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2005) 15; Judith Romney Wegner, “Philo’s Portrayal of Women—Hebraic or Hellenic?” in Women Like This: New Perspectives on Jewish Women in the Greco-Roman World (ed. Amy-Jill Levine; Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1991) 41–66 at 42–45. 6 introduction legal and social impact of the Creation narrative. Qumranic and rabbinic writ- ings on this topic are then quoted, and hypotheses regarding their underlying ideologies are offered. Chapter 2 attempts to demonstrate, by a thorough and detailed analysis of the biblical texts relevant to the Fall, unaffected as far as possible by the influ- ence of the host of exegetical writings from antiquity to modern times, that Scripture perceives the man, not the woman, as the main culprit in the Fall event described in Gen 3. Part 2, Chapter 3 examines the extent of the father’s authority over his daughter, paying special attention to the rule of Exod 21:7–11 concerning the father’s sale of his daughter as a slave and future wife, and debates conflicting scholarly interpretations of this rule. Chapter 4 investigates which precepts women are obligated to fulfill, and from which they are exempted, and hypothesizes about the underlying phil- osophy of such ordinances. Scriptural, Qumranic, and rabbinic attitudes towards this topic are considered. Chapter 5 explores the question of whether there was a distinct group named Yahad in the general Qumran community, as some scholars claim, and disputes this, contending that there was no such particular group with its own rules of conduct. Rather, I shall argue that all males over the age of twenty were members of the Eda with full obligations and rights, after the model of the Israelites’ organization in the desert. Chapter 6 investigates the legal motive for Qumran’s prohibition of polyg- amy, and asserts that the Qumran community acknowledged the procedure of divorce. Chapter 7 surveys scriptural, Qumranic, and rabbinic texts in terms of their attitude to asceticism, and affirms that all viewed it negatively, not considering self-denial of permitted acts as either a virtue or a practice for attaining spir- itual perfection. A conflicting scholarly viewpoint, that both Qumranic and rabbinic writings demonstrate aspects of asceticism, is disputed. Chapter 8 strongly disputes scholarly arguments that genealogy—that is, the preservation of the pure Israelite race—was Ezra’s motive in prohibiting exogamy, which led to significant legal consequences. Rather, Ezra acted to preserve the particular Israelite faith and way of life. A close and careful scru- tiny of the relevant biblical texts and of Qumran writings challenges the for- mer thesis and supports the latter.