Optoelectronic Devices and Properties Edited by Oleg Sergiyenko OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES AND PROPERTIES Edited by Oleg Sergiyenko INTECHOPEN.COM Optoelectronic Devices and Properties http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/618 Edited by Oleg Sergiyenko Contributors Marzena Ciszak, Francesco Marino, Riccardo Meucci, F. Tito Arecchi, Sora F. Abdalah, Kais Al-Naimee, Oleg Sergiyenko, Vera Tyrsa, Luis Carlos Basaca Preciado, Julio Cesar Rodriguez Quinones, Wilmar Hernandez, Juan Ivan Nieto Hipolito, Oleg Starostenko, Moises Rivas-Lopez, Ting Mei, Yong Hu, Ji-Seon Kim, Craig Murphy, Raffaella Capelli, Stefano Toffanin, Gianluca Generali, Eugenio Amendola, Aniello Cammarano, Domenico Acierno, Patrice Salzenstein, Beat Ruhstaller, Evelyne Knapp, Daniele Rezzonico, Nils Reinke, Benjamin Perucco, Felix Müller, Benjamin Bachmann, Thomas Flatz, Linjun Wang, Jian Huang, Ke Tang, Jijun Zhang, Yiben Xia, Bruno Ullrich, Stefano Lagomarsino, Yutaka Ohno, Ichiro Yonenaga, Seiji Takeda, Zhizhong Yan, Abdelhakim Nafidi, Ning Hua Zhu, Wei Chen, Li Xian Wang, Bang Hong Zhang, Vladimir G. Meledin, Vladimir Svrcek, Vladimir Cech, Jiri Jevicky, Michael P. Hanias, George S. Tombras, Hector E. Nistazakis, Anca Stanculescu, Florin Stanculescu, Victoria Tsakiri, Antonis Skountzos, Emanuele Verrelli, Panos Yannakopoulos, Ioana Ionel, Adam Szcześniak, Zbigniew Szcześniak, Wei Li, Jian Hong Ke, Hong Guang Zhang, Jiang Wei Man, Jianguo Liu, Ivana Roche, Edgar Schiebel, Marianne Hörlesberger, Nathalie Vedovotto, Dominique Besagni, Claire François, Roger Mounet, Jae Do Nam, Keon-Soo Jang, Vladimir G. Krasilenko, Aleksandr I. Nikolskyy, Alexander A. Lazarev, Ashok K. K Sood, Dennis Polla, Zhong Wang, Nibir Dhar, Tariq Manzur, A. F. M. Anwar, Daniel Hernandez Balbuena, Mario Pena Cabrera © The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2011 The moral rights of the and the author(s) have been asserted. All rights to the book as a whole are reserved by INTECH. The book as a whole (compilation) cannot be reproduced, distributed or used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without INTECH’s written permission. 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No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. First published in Croatia, 2011 by INTECH d.o.o. eBook (PDF) Published by IN TECH d.o.o. Place and year of publication of eBook (PDF): Rijeka, 2019. IntechOpen is the global imprint of IN TECH d.o.o. Printed in Croatia Legal deposit, Croatia: National and University Library in Zagreb Additional hard and PDF copies can be obtained from orders@intechopen.com Optoelectronic Devices and Properties Edited by Oleg Sergiyenko p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-204-3 eBook (PDF) ISBN 978-953-51-4906-4 Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI) Interested in publishing with us? Contact book.department@intechopen.com Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected. For more information visit www.intechopen.com 4,000+ Open access books available 151 Countries delivered to 12.2% Contributors from top 500 universities Our authors are among the Top 1% most cited scientists 116,000+ International authors and editors 120M+ Downloads We are IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open Access books Built by scientists, for scientists Meet the editor Oleg Yu. Sergiyenko received the B.S., and M.S., degrees in Kharkiv National University of Automobiles and Highways, Kharkiv, Ukraine, in 1991, 1993, respective- ly. He received the Ph.D. degree in Kharkiv National Polytechnic University on specialty “Tools and methods of non-destructive control” in 1997. In March 1997, he joined the Kharkiv National Univer- sity of Automobiles and Highways. He has written 67 papers and holds 1 patent of Ukraine; currently he is reviewer for IEEE Transaction on Indus- trial Electronics, IEEE Transaction on Mechatronics, etc.; he participates as reviewer and section chair in several IEEE conferences in Japan, USA, UK, Italy, etc. Part 1 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Preface X II I New Materials in Optoelectronics 1 Organic-Organic Semiconductor Interfaces for Molecular Electronic Devices 3 Ji-Seon Kim and Craig Murphy A Study of Adhesion of Silicon Dioxide on Polymeric Substrates for Optoelectronic Applications 23 E. Amendola, A. Cammarano and D. Acierno Organic Semiconductor Based Heterostructures for Optoelectronic Devices 41 Anca Stanculescu and Florin Stanculescu Thin-Film Diamond Phototransistors 73 Linjun Wang, Jian Huang, Ke Tang, Jijun Zhang and Yiben Xia Multilayer Approach in Light-Emitting Transistors 89 Gianluca Generali, Stefano Toffanin and Raffaella Capelli Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Optoelectronic Devices 103 V. Th. Tsakiri, A. P. Skountzos, P. H. Yannakopoulos and E. Verrelli Identification of Emergent Research Issues: the Case of Optoelectronic Devices 125 Ivana Roche, Nathalie Vedovotto, Dominique Besagni, Claire François, Roger Mounet, Edgar Schiebel and Marianne Hörlesberger Synchronous Vapor-Phase Coating of Conducting Polymers for Flexible Optoelectronic Applications 151 Keon-Soo Jang and Jae-Do Nam Contents X Contents Nanostructures: Properties and Applications 171 ZnO Nanostructures for Optoelectronic Applications 173 Ashok K. Sood, Zhong Lin Wang, Dennis L. Polla, Nibir K. Dhar, Tariq Manzur and A.F.M. Anwar Hybrid Optoelectronic and Photovoltaic Materials based on Silicon Nanocrystals and Conjugated Polymers 197 Vladimir Svrcek Synthesis, Self-assembly and Optoelectronic Properties of Monodisperse ZnO Quantum Dots 215 Ting Mei and Yong Hu In-Situ Analysis of Optoelectronic Properties of Semiconductor Nanostructures and Defects in Transmission Electron Microscopes 241 Yutaka Ohno, Ichiro Yonenega and Seiji Takeda Investigating Optoelectronic Properties of the NbN Superconducting Nanowire Single Photon Detector 263 Zhizhong Yan Band Structure and Magneto- Transport Properties in II-VI Nanostructures Semiconductors - Application to Infrared Detector Superlattices 283 Abdelhakim Nafidi Optoelectronic Measurements in Spatial Domain 305 3D Body & Medical Scanners’ Technologies: Methodology and Spatial Discriminations 307 Julio C. Rodríguez-Quiñonez, Oleg Sergiyenko, Vera Tyrsa, Luís C. Básaca-Preciado, Moisés Rivas-Lopez, Daniel Hernández-Balbuena and Mario Peña-Cabrera Research and Development of the Passive Optoelectronic Rangefinder 323 Vladimir Cech and Jiri Jevicky Methods and Devices of Processing Signals of Optoelectronic Position Transducers 349 Zbigniew Szcześniak and Adam Szcześniak Optoelectronic Measurements in Science and Innovative Industrial Technologies 373 Vladimir G. Meledin Part 2 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Part 3 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Contents XI Optoelectronic Measurements in Frequency Domain 399 Optoelectronic Oscillators 401 Patrice Salzenstein Statistical Tools and Optoelectronic Measuring Instruments 411 Ionel Sabin and Ionel Ioana Physical Modeling and Simulations of Optoelectronic Devices 431 Advanced Numerical Simulation of Organic Light-emitting Devices 433 Beat Ruhstaller, Evelyne Knapp, Benjamin Perucco, Nils Reinke, Daniele Rezzonico and Felix Müller Design and Simulation of Time-Pulse Coded Optoelectronic Neural Elements and Devices 459 Vladimir G. Krasilenko, Aleksandr I. Nikolskyy and Alexander A. Lazarev Optical and Electrical Spectrum Analysis of Optoelectronic Devices 501 Ning Hua Zhu, Wei Chen, Wei Li, Li Xian Wang, Xiao Qiong Qi and Bang Hong Zhang Bistable Photoconduction in Semiconductors 527 Stefano Lagomarsino Laser Devices and Methods 547 Electromechanical 3D Optoelectronic Scanners: Resolution Constraints and Possible Ways of Improvement 549 Oleg Sergiyenko, Vera Tyrsa, Luís C. Basaca-Preciado, Julio C. Rodríguez-Quiñones, Wilmar Hernández, Juan I. Nieto-Hipólito, Moisés Rivas Lopez and Oleg Starostenko Employment of Pulsed-Laser Deposition for Optoelectronic Device Fabrication 583 Ullrich Bruno Optical Spectral Structure and Frequency Coherence 603 Ning Hua Zhu, Wei Li, Jian Hong Ke, Hong Guang Zhang, Jiang Wei Man and Jian Guo Liu Part 4 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Part 5 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Part 6 Chapter 25 Chapter 26 Chapter 27 XII Contents Optical Communications 629 Optoelectronic Chaotic Circuits 631 M.P. Hanias, H.E. Nistazakis and G.S. Tombras Optoelectronic Feedback in Semiconductor Light Sources: Optimization of Network Components for Synchronization 651 Sora F. Abdalah, Marzena Ciszak, Francesco Marino, Kais Al-Naimee, Riccardo Meucci and F. Tito Arecchi Part 7 Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Preface Optoelectronic devices impact many areas of society, from simple household appli- ances and multimedia systems to communications, computing, spatial scanning, opti- cal monitoring, 3D measurements and medical instruments. This is the most complete book about optoelectromechanic systems and semiconductor optoelectronic devices; it provides an accessible, well-organized overview of optoelectronic devices and proper- ties that emphasizes basic principles. Coverage combines an optional review from key concepts such as properties of compound semiconductors, semiconductor statistics, carrier transport properties, optical processes, etc., up to gradual progress through more advanced topics. This book includes the recent developments in the eld, empha- sizes fundamental concepts and analytical techniques, rather than a comprehensive coverage of di ff erent devices, so readers can apply them to all current, and even future, devices. In this book are introduced novel materials and physico-chemical phenomena useful for new tasks solution. It discusses important properties for di ff erent types of applica- tion, such as analog or digital links, the formation and analysis of optical waveguides; channel waveguide components; guided wave interactions; electrooptical e ff ects; time dependence, bandwidth and electrical circuits. Given the demand for ever more compact and powerful systems, there is growing in- terest in the development of nanoscale devices that could enable new functions and greatly enhanced performance. Semiconductor nanowires are emerging as a powerful class of materials that, through controlled growth and organization, are opening up substantial opportunities for novel photonic and electronic nanodevices. Also progress in the area of nanowires growth is reviewed, as well as the fundamental electronic and optoelectronic properties of semiconductor nanowires and nanowire heterostructures, as well as strategies for and emerging results demonstrating their promise for nanoscale device arrays. Nanowires made could be ideal building blocks for making nano-optoelectronic devices; the nanowires sometimes show periodic de- fect structures along their lengths, which may be crucial for determining the optical properties of the material, so nanostructures may lead to further novel properties and promising applications such as point defects and stacking faults. A signi cant part of optoelectronic methods are contributed in various geometric mea- surements like range nders, various 2D and 3D vision systems, with several applica- tions in robot navigation, structural health monitoring, medical and body scanners. XI V Preface Optoelectronic measurements are still among of the most a tt ractive tools in a both spatial and frequency domains. Independently a review of a wide range of optical ber communication and optoelectronic systems is presented. In such networks, the electrical and the optical characteristics of guided- wave devices have a profound e ff ect on the system design and overall performance. This book generally combines both the optical and electrical behavior of optoelectronic devices so that the interwoven properties, including interconnections to external components. It also shows the impact of material properties on various optoelectronic devices, and emphasizes the impor- tance of time-dependent interactions between electrical and optical signals. It provides the key concepts and analytical techniques that readers can apply to current and future devices. This is an ideal reference for graduate students and researchers in electrical engineering and applied physics departments, as well as practitioners in the optoelectronics industry. Oleg Sergiyenko The Engineering Institute, Autonomous University of Baja California, Mexicali, Mexico Part 1 New Materials in Optoelectronics 1 Organic-Organic Semiconductor Interfaces for Molecular Electronic Devices Ji-Seon Kim 1 and Craig Murphy 2 1Department of Physics & Centre for Plastic Electronics, Imperial College London, 2National Physical Laboratory (NPL) United Kingdom 1. Introduction Molecular (Plastic) electronics encompasses the materials science, chemistry and physics of molecular electronic materials and the application of such materials to displays, lighting, flexible thin film electronics, solar energy conversion and sensors. The field is a growth area, nationally and globally, evidenced by the rapidly expanding organic display and printed electronics industries. Organic semiconductors combine the semiconductor properties traditionally associated with inorganic materials with the more desirable properties of plastics. Moreover, the organic syntheses of these materials allow for great flexibility in the tuning of their electronic and optical properties. By combining these properties, organic semiconductors such as conjugated polymers have been demonstrated as the active material in light-emitting diodes (LEDs), transistors, and photovoltaic (PV) cells. Furthermore, these conjugated polymers provide a new way of looking at many of the broad fundamental scientific issues related to using molecules for electronics. A great deal of the physics which governs the behaviour of molecules for electronics occurs at the organic-organic interfaces (heterojunctions). For example, the nature of organic interfaces determines the fate of excitons to be either stabilised (for efficient LEDs) or destabilised (for efficient PV cells) at the interfaces. Therefore, by selecting semiconductors with proper band-edge offsets between their conduction and valence bands, different device characteristics can be readily achieved. While significant progress has been made in developing the materials and high performance organic devices, many fundamental aspects of organic-organic semiconductor interfaces remain to be understood. In particular, fundamental understanding of the correlation between nanostructures and interfaces of organic semiconductors in thin films and multilayers and associated device performance still remain to be fully explored. In this Chapter, we will introduce how to control and characterise various length-scale organic- organic interfaces facilitating the rational design of materials, device architectures and fabrication methods via increased understanding of fundamental properties of organic- organic interfaces and their modification due to processing. In particular, we will address the distinctive optoelectronic and charge transport properties which have been observed across different organic-organic interfaces depending on their length-scale (micron-scale in the blends down to molecular-scale in the copolymers) and nature (interchain vs intrachain), providing the deeper understanding of organic interfaces and their vital roles in various optoelectronic devices. The key advances in organic semiconductor interfaces achieved so Optoelectronic Devices and Properties 4 far will provide important insight into a design rule of organic semiconductors which is essential for future development in molecular electronic devices. 2. The main aim and contents of this chapter This chapter aims to review fundamental scientific issues related to using molecules for electronics down to the single-molecule scale by studying a range of well-controlled organic-organic interfaces, with a particular focus on their role on electronic structures and electronic processes of organic semiconductors and their devices. Specific topics were: 1. Control and characterisation of various length-scale organic interfaces (Section 3) 2. Photophysical dynamics of electronic species at the organic interfaces (Section 4) 3. Electronic processes of charge carriers across the organic interfaces (Section 5) 4. Charge-carrier operational dynamics across the organic interfaces (Section 6) 3. Control and characterisation of various length-scale organic interfaces 3.1 Interfaces controlled by polymer molecular weight variation Polymer molecular weight (MW) (i.e. chain length) variation was used as a tool to control the phase separation laterally and/or vertically in blend films (Yim et al., 2010). The conjugated polymers studied are poly(9,9-di- n -octylfluorene- alt -benzothiadiazole) F8BT (M n = 9 - 255 kg/mol) and poly(9,9-di- n -octylfluorene- alt -(1,4-phenylene-((4- sec -butylphenyl) imino)-1,4-phenylene) TFB (M n = 3 - 102 kg/mol) (Chemical structures in Table 1). Micron- scale lateral phase separation is observed in blend films that consist of high MW of both F8BT and TFB (M n > 60 kg/mol), in which domain sizes increase with MW of each homopolymer. For these blend films, the micro-Raman spectroscopy study indicates that the higher-lying domains are F8BT-rich and the lower-lying domains are TFB-rich. In contrast, the blend films that consist of at least one low MW homopolymer (M n < 10 kg/mol) show relatively smooth surface with sub-micron or no measurable lateral phase separation. Using the surface-sensitive X–ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) technique, it is observed first that, for blend films that consist of at least one low MW polymer (M n < 10 kg/mol), there is a significant enrichment of the short polymer chains at the film-air interface. This reveals that the vertical phase segregation at the film-air interface is driven by the contrast of MW between the two homopolymers. On the other hand, for blend films that show micron- scale lateral phase separation, the film-air interface is always enriched with TFB, suggesting the presence of TFB capping layer apart from the exposed TFB-rich domains. Second, for all the blend films at the film-substrate interface, there is an enrichment of the lower surface energy material (TFB). The extent of TFB enrichment is found to increase with the MW of both polymers, possibly due to increased thickness or purity of the TFB wetting layer in these blend films. These observations suggest that surface energy contrast (as oppose to MW contrast) might be the dominant driving force in determining the vertical phase segregation at the film-substrate interface. Based on the morphological and compositional analyses of these blend films, we proposed two different models of the final phase separated structures (Fig 1a and 1b) for blend films without and with micron-scale lateral phase separation, respectively. For the blend films with no visible lateral phase separation (in which a large MW contrast exists between the two homopolymers), the film-air interface is enriched with the low MW polymer, while the film-substrate interface is always enriched with the lower surface energy Organic-Organic Semiconductor Interfaces for Molecular Electronic Devices 5 polymer TFB. For the blend films with obvious micron-scale lateral phase separated structures, additional nanoscale vertical phase segregation also occurs resulting in a continuous TFB wetting layer at the film-substrate interface and a discontinuous TFB capping layer at the film-air interface ( aKim et al., 2004). These remarkably different lateral and vertical phase separation observed in the F8BT:TFB blend films has important implications on LED performance. Material Chemical Structure HOMO [eV] PL efficiency P3HT -4.8 0.1 0 [a] PFB -5.1 0.65 0 [a] 0.35 [b] TFB -5.3 0.4 0.05 [a] 0.1 [b] F8BT -5.9 0.6 0.05 [a] F 4-TCNQ -5.2 [c] - Table 1. Chemical structures and optoelectronic properties of conjugated polymers and F 4 TCNQ. [a] PL efficiency of 5 % F4TCNQ-doped polymer, [b] PL efficiency of 5 % F4TCNQ-doped polymer after annealing (N 2 environment, 200 ºC, 1 hr), [c] LUMO level of F 4 TCNQ N N n C 8 H 17 C 8 H 17 N N n C 8 H 17 C 8 H 17 C 8 H 17 C 8 H 17 N n C 8 H 17 C 8 H 17 N S N n Optoelectronic Devices and Properties 6 F8BT/ 9K F8BT/ 62K F8BT/ 255K TFB/ 3K TFB/ 66K TFB/ 106K 100 nm Low molecular weight polymer-rich phase Low surface energy polymer-rich phase 100 nm Low molecular weight polymer-rich phase Low surface energy polymer-rich phase 100 nm F8BT-rich phase TFB-rich phase TFB wetting layer TFB capping layer 100 nm F8BT-rich phase TFB-rich phase TFB wetting layer TFB capping layer (a) (b) Fig. 1. Left: PL images of F8BT:TFB blend films (100nm, 1:1 by weight) with different MWs under blue excitation. The bright regions correspond to F8BT-rich phases while the dark regions TFB-rich phases. Inset: AFM images (20 μ mX20 μ m). Right: Proposed cross sections (a) at least one low MW homopolymers and (b) high MW of both homopolymers 1 10 1 2 3 4 5 (a) F/9k:T/3k (b) F/9k:T/66k (c) F/9k:T/106k (d) F/62k:T/3k (e) F/62k:T/66k (f) F/62k:T/106k (g) F/255k:T/3k (h) F/255k:T/66k (i) F/255k:T/106k Power efficiency (lm/W) Voltage (V) (b) 1 10 1 2 3 4 5 Photometric efficiency (cd/A) Voltage (V) (a) 1 10 1 2 3 4 5 (a) F/9k:T/3k (b) F/9k:T/66k (c) F/9k:T/106k (d) F/62k:T/3k (e) F/62k:T/66k (f) F/62k:T/106k (g) F/255k:T/3k (h) F/255k:T/66k (i) F/255k:T/106k Power efficiency (lm/W) Voltage (V) (b) 1 10 1 2 3 4 5 (a) F/9k:T/3k (b) F/9k:T/66k (c) F/9k:T/106k (d) F/62k:T/3k (e) F/62k:T/66k (f) F/62k:T/106k (g) F/255k:T/3k (h) F/255k:T/66k (i) F/255k:T/106k Power efficiency (lm/W) Voltage (V) (b) 1 10 1 2 3 4 5 Photometric efficiency (cd/A) Voltage (V) (a) Fig. 2. EL efficiency-voltage characteristics of LEDs fabricated with F8BT:TFB blend films with different molecular weights of each copolymer, in (a) cd/A and (b) lm/W