Earthquake Engineering Edited by Halil Sezen EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING Edited by Halil Sezen Earthquake Engineering http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/1608 Edited by Halil Sezen Contributors Wael Zatar, Issam Harik, Afshin Kalantari, En-Jui Lee, Po Chen, Haiqiang Lan, Zhongjie Zhang, Vladislav Boris Zaalishvili, Alexander Tyapin, Muhammad A. Rahman Bhuiyan, Ming-Yi Liu, Pao-Hsii Wang, Nove Naumoski, Lan Lin, Silvia Garcia, Hakan Yalciner, Khaled Marar, Halil Sezen © The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2012 The moral rights of the and the author(s) have been asserted. All rights to the book as a whole are reserved by INTECH. The book as a whole (compilation) cannot be reproduced, distributed or used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without INTECH’s written permission. Enquiries concerning the use of the book should be directed to INTECH rights and permissions department (permissions@intechopen.com). Violations are liable to prosecution under the governing Copyright Law. 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For more information visit www.intechopen.com 4,100+ Open access books available 151 Countries delivered to 12.2% Contributors from top 500 universities Our authors are among the Top 1% most cited scientists 116,000+ International authors and editors 120M+ Downloads We are IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open Access books Built by scientists, for scientists Meet the editor Dr Halil Sezen is an Associate Professor in the Depart- ment of Civil, Environment and Geodetic Engineering at the Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio, USA. He got his B.S., M.S. and PhD degrees from the Mid- dle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey; Cornell University, New York; and University of California, Berkeley, respectively. He conducts computational and experimental research on the behavior of structures and their components under extreme loading conditions including seismic loads. Specifically, he developed models to predict the response of reinforced concrete building columns with design details not meeting the requirements of modern seis- mic design codes. He investigated seismic behavior of various engineering structures including historical and monumental structures, and industrial facilities. His recent research also includes e field testing and computation- al simulation of progressive collapse of buildings. Contents Preface X I Section 1 Seismic Risk, Hazard, Wave Simulation and Geotechnical Aspects 1 Chapter 1 Seismic Risk of Structures and the Economic Issues of Earthquakes 3 Afshin Kalantari Chapter 2 Assessment of Seismic Hazard of Territory 25 V. B. Zaalishvili Chapter 3 A Cognitive Look at Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering: Understanding the Multidimensionality of the Phenomena 65 Silvia Garcia Chapter 4 Three-Dimensional Wavefield Simulation in Heterogeneous Transversely Isotropic Medium with Irregular Free Surface 105 Haiqiang Lan and Zhongjie Zhang Chapter 5 Full-Wave Ground Motion Forecast for Southern California 131 En-Jui Lee and Po Chen Chapter 6 Soil-Structure Interaction 145 Alexander Tyapin Section 2 Seismic Performance and Simulation of Behavior of Structures 179 Chapter 7 Seismic Performance of Historical and Monumental Structures 181 Halil Sezen and Adem Dogangun X Contents Chapter 8 Bridge Embankments – Seismic Risk Assessment and Ranking 203 Wael A. Zatar and Issam E. Harik Chapter 9 Finite Element Analysis of Cable-Stayed Bridges with Appropriate Initial Shapes Under Seismic Excitations Focusing on Deck-Stay Interaction 231 Ming-Yi Liu and Pao-Hsii Wang Chapter 10 Dynamic Behaviour of the Confederation Bridge Under Seismic Loads 257 Lan Lin, Nove Naumoski and Murat Saatcioglu Chapter 11 Seismic Performance Evaluation of Corroded Reinforced Concrete Structures by Using Default and User-Defined Plastic Hinge Properties 281 Hakan Yalçiner and Khaled Marar Chapter 12 Mechanical Characterization of Laminated Rubber Bearings and Their Modeling Approach 303 A. R. Bhuiyan and Y.Okui Preface Recent major earthquakes around the world have shown the vulnerability of infrastructure and the need for research to better understand the nature of seismic events and their effects on structures. As a result, earthquake engineering research has been expanding as more and more data become available from a large array of seismic instruments, large scale experiments and numerical simulations. This book presents results from some of the current seismic research activities including three- dimensional wave propagation in different soil media, seismic loss assessment, geotechnical problems including soil-structure interaction, and seismic response of structural components and structures including historical and monumental structures, bridge embankments, and different types of bridges and bearings. First part of the book deals with seismic risk assessment and hazard analysis with a concentration on seismic microzonation, development of probabilistic hazard maps, geotechnical problems including soil-structure interaction, and three-dimensional wave propagation in different soil media considering different surface characteristics and topography. Chapter 1 provides a methodology for seismic risk assessment within a performance based earthquake engineering framework. Probabilistic hazard analysis and economic models are used for loss estimation and evaluation of earthquake impact on regional economies. Chapter 2 describes development of seismic microzonation and probabilistic hazard maps for a specific region. Details of site characteristics including geological conditions and soil nonlinearity were considered in the seismic zoning and hazard assessment. Chapter 3 presents cognitive methods for modeling geotechnical and seismological problems. New data-driven modern techniques are used to complement and improve the traditional physically-based geotechnical modeling and system analysis under earthquake loading. Chapter 4 includes a new method to simulate three-dimensional seismic wave simulation in heterogeneous transversely isotropic medium with non-flat free surface. Numerical simulations involving different free surfaces provide realistic seismic wave propagation in the vicinity of the earth surface. Wave diffractions, scattering, multiple reflections, and converted waves caused by the free surface topography are studied. Chapter 5 provides ground motion estimates for Sothern California as a case study for seismic hazard analysis in a high seismic region. The numerical simulations include full-wave propagation in three-dimensional velocity models. Chapter 6 includes X Preface recommendations on soil-structures interaction modeling and provides classification of different modeling approaches based on general superposition of wave fields. State- of-the-art approaches including those used in nuclear industry are discussed. The second part of the book is devoted to dynamic behavior structures and their components under earthquake loading. Chapter 7 presents seismic performance and vulnerability of historical and monumental structures based on field observations after major earthquakes and dynamic analysis structural models. Seismic damage observed in a large number of structures are documented and discussed. Chapter 8 provides a methodology for quick seismic assessment and ranking of bridge embankments to identify and prioritize embankments that are susceptible to failure. The methodology is applied to a large number of bridge embankments considering the effect of various site conditions, earthquake magnitudes, and site geometry on possible movement of the embankment. Chapter 9 investigates the deck-stay interaction mechanisms using appropriate initial shapes of cable-stayed bridges. Modal analyses of finite element bridge models are performed under earthquake excitations. Seismic evaluation and dynamic behavior of a 12.9 km long bridge is presented in Chapter 10. Various ground motions that can be expected at the bridge site were selected and used in the dynamic analysis of the finite element model. Chapter 11 investigates the effect of plastic hinge properties on the time-dependent seismic performance of reinforced concrete buildings with and without corroded reinforcement. The last chapter presents results of an experimental research to characterize the mechanical behavior of three types of bearings under biaxial loading. A rate-dependent constitutive model is developed to represent the cyclic shear behavior of laminated rubber bearings. This last topic covered in the book investigates the response of a component while the other chapters mainly focuses on various structures including buildings and bridges. Halil Sezen Department of Civil, Environment and Geodetic Engineering at the Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio, USA Section 1 Seismic Risk, Hazard, Wave Simulation and Geotechnical Aspects Chapter 1 © 2012 Kalantari, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Seismic Risk of Structures and the Economic Issues of Earthquakes Afshin Kalantari Additional information is available at the end of the chapter http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50789 1. Introduction As one of the most devastating natural events, earthquakes impose economic challenges on communities and governments. The number of human and economic assets at risk is growing as megacities and urban areas develop all over the world. This increasing risk has been plotted in the damage and loss reports after the great earthquakes. The 1975 Tangshan (China) earthquake killed about 200,000 people. The 1994 Northridge, (USA) earthquake left 57 dead and about 8,700 injured. The country experienced around $42 billion in losses due to it. The 1995 earthquake in Kobe (Japan) caused about 6,000 fatalities and over $120 Billion in economic loss. The August 1996 Izmit (Turkey) earthquake killed 20,000 people and caused $12 billion in economic loss. The 1999 Chi-chi (Taiwan) earthquake caused an estimated $8 billion in loss. The 2006 Gujarat (India) earthquake saw around 18,000 fatalities and 330,000 demolished buildings [1]. The Sichuan (China) earthquake, on May 12th 2008 left 88,000 people dead or missing and nearly 400,000 injured. That earthquake damaged or destroyed millions of homes, leaving five million homeless. It also caused extensive damage to basic infrastructure, including schools, hospitals, roads and water systems. The event cost around $29 billion in direct loss alone [2]. The devastating earthquake of March 2011 with its resulting tsunami along the east coast of Japan is known to be the world's most costly earthquake. The World Bank estimated the cost at $235 billion while government estimates reported the number at $305 billion. The event left 8,700 dead and more than 13,000 missing [3]. As has been shown, earthquake events have not only inflicted human and physical damage, they have also been able to cause considerable economic conflict in vulnerable cities and regions. The importance of the economic issues and the consequences of earthquakes attracted the attention of engineers and provided new research and working opportunities © 2012 Kalantari, licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Earthquake Engineering 4 for engineers, who up until then had been concerned only with risk reduction options through engineering strategies [4]. Seismic loss estimation is an expertise provided by earthquake engineering and the manner in which it can be employed in the processes of assessing seismic loss and managing the financial and economical risk associated with earthquakes through more beneficial retrofit methods will be discussed. The methodology provides a useful tool for comparing different engineering alternatives from a seismic-risk-point of view based on a Performance Based Earthquake Engineering (PBEE) framework [5]. Next, an outline of the regional economic models employed for the assessment of earthquakes’ impact on economies will be briefly introduced. 1.1. The economic consequences of earthquakes The economic consequences of earthquakes may occur both before and after the seismic event itself [6]. However, the focus of this chapter will be on those which occur after earthquakes. The consequences and effects of earthquakes may be classified in terms of their primary or direct effects and their secondary or indirect effects. The indirect effects are sometimes referred to by economists as higher-order effects. The primary (direct) effects of an earthquake appear immediately after it as social and physical damage. The secondary (indirect) effects take into account the system-wide impact of flow losses through inter- industry relationships and economic sectors. For example, where damage occurs to a bridge then its inability to serve to passing vehicles is considered a primary or direct loss, while if the flow of the row material to a manufacturing plant in another area is interrupted due to the inability of passing traffic to cross the bridge, the loss due to the business’s interruption in this plant is called secondary or indirect loss. A higher-order effect is another term as an alternative to indirect or secondary effects which has been proposed by economists [7]. These potential effects of earthquakes may be categorized as: "social or human", "physical" and "economic" effects. This is summarized in Table 1 [8]. The term ‘total impact’ accordingly refers to the summation of direct (first-order effects) and indirect losses (higher-order effects). Various economic frameworks have been introduced to assess the higher-order effects of an earthquake. With a three-sector hypothesis of an economy, it may be demonstrated in terms of a breakdown as three sectors: the primary sector as raw materials, the secondary sector as manufacturing and the tertiary sector as services. The interaction of these sectors after suffering seismic loss and the relative effects on each other requires study through proper economic models. 2. The estimation of seismic loss of structures in the PBEE framework The PBEE process can be expressed in terms of a four-step analysis, including [9-10]: Hazard analysis, which results in Intensity Measures (IMs) for the facility under study, Seismic Risk of Structures and Earthquake Economic Issues 5 Structural analysis, which gives the Engineering Demand Parameters (EDPs) required for damage analysis, Damage analysis, which compares the EDPs with the Damage Measure in order to decide for the failure of the facility, and; Loss Analysis, which evaluates the occurrence of Decision Variables (DVs) due to failures. Social or human effects Physical effects Economic effects Primary effects (Direct or first-order) Fatalities Injuries Loss of income or employment opportunities Homelessness Ground deformation and loss of ground quality Collapse and structural damage to buildings and infrastructure Non-structural damage to buildings and infrastructure (e.g., component damage) Disruption of business due to damage to industrial plants and equipment Loss of productive work force, through fatalities, injuries and relief efforts Disruption of communications networks Cost of response and relief Secondary effects (indirect or higher- order) Disease or permanent disability Psychological impact of injury, Bereavement, shock Loss of social cohesion due to disruption of community Political unrest when government response is perceived as inadequate Reduction of the seismic capacity of damaged structure which are not repaired Progressive deterioration of damaged buildings and infrastructure which are not repaired Losses borne by the insurance industry, weakening the insurance market and increasing the premiums Losses of markets and trade opportunities, Table 1. Effects from Earthquakes [8] Considering the results of each step as a conditional event following the previous step and all of the parameters as independent random parameters, the process can be expressed in terms of a triple integral, as shown below, which is an application of the total probability theorem [11]: Earthquake Engineering 6 �(��) = ∫∫∫ �[��|��]|��[��|���]|��[���|���|��[��] (1) The performance of a structural system or lifeline is described by comparing demand and capacity parameters. In earthquake engineering, the excitation, demand and capacity parameters are random variables. Therefore, probabilistic techniques are required in order to estimate the response of the system and provide information about the availability or failure of the facility after loading. The concept is included in the reliability design approach, which is usually employed for this purpose. 2.1. Probabilistic seismic demand analysis through a reliability-based design approach The reliability of a structural system or lifeline may be referred to as the ability of the system or its components to perform their required functions under stated conditions for a specified period of time. Because of uncertainties in loading and capacity, the subject usually includes probabilistic methods and is often made through indices such as a safety index or the probability of the failure of the structure or lifeline. 2.1.1. Reliability index and failure To evaluate the seismic performance of the structures, performance functions are defined. Let us assume that z =g(x 1, x 2 , ...,x n ) is taken as a performance function. As such, failure or damage occurs when z <0. The probability of failure, p f , is expressed as follows: P f =P[z<0] (2) Simply assume that z = EDP - C where EDP stands for Engineering Demand Parameter and C is the seismic capacity of the structure. Damage or failure in a structural system or lifeline occurs when the Engineering Demand Parameter exceeds the capacity provided. For example, in a bridge structural damage may refer to the unseating of the deck, the development of a plastic hinge at the bottom of piers or damage due to the pounding of the decks to the abutments, etc. Given that EDP and C are random parameters having the expected or mean values of μ EDP and μ C and standard deviation of σ EDP and σ C , the “safety index” or “reliability index”, β , is defined as: � = � � �� ��� �� � � �� ��� � (3) It has been observed that the random variables such as " EDP " or " C " follow normal or log- normal distribution. Accordingly, the performance function, z, also will follow the same distribution. Accordingly, probability of failure (or damage occurrence) may be expressed as a function of safety index, as follows: