Introduction to Psychology - 1st Canadian Edition Introduction to Psychology - 1st Canadian Edition Charles Stangor Jennifer Walinga Unless otherwise noted, Introduction to Psychology – 1st Canadian Edition is (c) 2010 Charles Stangor. The textbook content was produced by Charles Stangor and is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, except for the following changes and additions, which are (c) 2014 Jennifer Walinga, and are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Interna- tional License . The following changes were made to this book as a whole: • Canadian spellings were used • Imperial measurements were changed to metric • Added or changed content and references to reflect a Canadian perspective • Where appropriate, changed images to reflect Canadian specific content and references • Replaced copyrighted images with openly licensed images; if no replacement found, copyrighted images were removed. • For most existing videos, videos were embedded and QR codes added Chapter 2: NEW • Introduction to Major Perspectives Chapter 3: • Replaced “Consent Form: Interactions” with “Sample Research Consent Form” • Replaced “APA Guidelines on Human Care and Use of Animals in Research” with the Canadian Psychological Association guidelines Chapter 6: • Replaced National Sleep Foundation guidelines with those from the Canadian Sleep Society Chapter 9: • Added Thomas Sophonow and Michael Kliman examples to opening case study about Jennifer Thompson • Replaced States and Capital Cities table with Provinces and Capital Cities • Added Kent Cochrane example to section on severe amnesia • Added Gold Mountain Blues copyright case Chapter 10: • Added Vingilis-Jeremko & Vingilis 2006 researcher on gender differences in STEM performance to opening case study • Expanded section on bilingualism to include Canadian relevance Chapter 11: • Added Gavin England story to opening case study Chapter 12: • Changed text and images to Canadian content in Psychology in Everyday Life: Leaders and Leadership text box Chapter 13: • Added information on Romeo Dallaire to PSTD section Chapter 14: • Replaced ethical principles by the American Psychological Association with those from the Canadian Counselling and Psychotherapy Association in the Psychology in Everyday Life text box Chapter 15: • Sam Spady opening case study replaced with Jonathan Andrews story • Research Focus: The Culture of Honour was rewritten with an international perspective Chapter 16 – NEW • Stress, Health, and Coping Under the terms of the CC-BY license, you are free to copy, redistribute, modify or adapt this book as long as you provide attribution. Addi- tionally, if you redistribute this textbook, in whole or in part, in either a print or digital format, then you must retain on every physical and/ or electronic page the following attribution: Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca For questions regarding this license, please contact opentext@bccampus.ca. To learn more about B.C. Open Textbook project, visit http://open.bccampus.ca Cover image: Another hand mirror reflection by Frank Kovalchek used under a CC-BY 2.0 license . Introduction to Psychology - 1st Canadian Edition by Charles Stangor is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted Dedication From Original Author: Charles Stangor To Leslie Contents About the Book cc-by x Approach and Pedagogy Charles Stangor xi Acknowledgments xiii Chapter 1. Introducing Psychology 1. Introducing Psychology 2 1.1 Psychology as a Science 4 1.2 The Evolution of Psychology: History, Approaches, and Questions 11 1.3 Chapter Summary 30 Chapter 2. Introduction to Major Perspectives 2. Introduction to Major Perspectives Jennifer Walinga cc-by 32 2.1 Biological Psychology Jennifer Walinga cc-by 34 2.2 Psychodynamic Psychology Jennifer Walinga cc-by 40 2.3 Behaviourist Psychology Jennifer Walinga cc-by 51 2.4 Humanist, Cognitive, and Evolutionary Psychology Jennifer Walinga cc-by 58 2.5 Chapter Summary Jennifer Walinga cc-by 69 Chapter 3. Psychological Science 3. Psychological Science 71 3.1 Psychologists Use the Scientific Method to Guide Their Research 74 3.2 Psychologists Use Descriptive, Correlational, and Experimental Research Designs to Understand Behaviour 84 3.3 You Can Be an Informed Consumer of Psychological Research 98 3.4 Chapter Summary 105 vi Chapter 4. Brains, Bodies, and Behaviour 4. Brains, Bodies, and Behaviour 108 4.1 The Neuron Is the Building Block of the Nervous System 110 4.2 Our Brains Control Our Thoughts, Feelings, and Behaviour 117 4.3 Psychologists Study the Brain Using Many Different Methods 130 4.4 Putting It All Together: The Nervous System and the Endocrine System 137 4.5 Chapter Summary 144 Chapter 5. Sensing and Perceiving 5. Sensing and Perceiving 147 5.1 We Experience Our World through Sensation 149 5.2 Seeing 157 5.3 Hearing 175 5.4 Tasting, Smelling, and Touching 180 5.5 Accuracy and Inaccuracy in Perception 186 5.6 Chapter Summary 195 Chapter 6. States of Consciousness 6. States of Consciousness 198 6.1 Sleeping and Dreaming Revitalize Us for Action 201 6.2 Altering Consciousness with Psychoactive Drugs 213 6.3 Altering Consciousness without Drugs 227 6.4 Chapter Summary 236 Chapter 7. Growing and Developing 7. Growing and Developing 239 7.1 Conception and Prenatal Development 242 7.2 Infancy and Childhood: Exploring and Learning 247 7.3 Adolescence: Developing Independence and Identity 263 7.4 Early and Middle Adulthood: Building Effective Lives 271 7.5 Late Adulthood: Aging, Retiring, and Bereavement 278 7.6 Chapter Summary 285 Chapter 8. Learning 8. Learning 287 8.1 Learning by Association: Classical Conditioning 289 8.2 Changing Behaviour through Reinforcement and Punishment: Operant Conditioning 295 8.3 Learning by Insight and Observation 302 8.4 Using the Principles of Learning to Understand Everyday Behaviour 307 8.5 Chapter Summary 315 vii Chapter 9. Remembering and Judging 9. Remembering and Judging 318 9.1 Memories as Types and Stages 323 9.2 How We Remember: Cues to Improving Memory 334 9.3 Accuracy and Inaccuracy in Memory and Cognition 350 9.4 Chapter Summary 364 Chapter 10. Intelligence and Language 10. Intelligence and Language 366 10.1 Defining and Measuring Intelligence 369 10.2 The Social, Cultural, and Political Aspects of Intelligence 384 10.3 Communicating with Others: The Development and Use of Language 394 10.4 Chapter Summary 408 Chapter 11. Emotions and Motivations 11. Emotions and Motivations 411 11.1 The Experience of Emotion 415 11.2 Stress: The Unseen Killer 426 11.3 Positive Emotions: The Power of Happiness 439 11.4 Two Fundamental Human Motivations: Eating and Mating 446 11.5 Chapter Summary 459 Chapter 12. Personality 12. Personality 462 12.1 Personality and Behaviour: Approaches and Measurement 464 12.2 The Origins of Personality 481 12.3 Is Personality More Nature or More Nurture? Behavioural and Molecular Genetics 494 12.4 Chapter Summary 501 Chapter 13. Defining Psychological Disorders 13. Defining Psychological Disorders 504 13.1 Psychological Disorder: What Makes a Behaviour Abnormal? 505 13.2 Anxiety and Dissociative Disorders: Fearing the World Around Us 518 13.3 Mood Disorders: Emotions as Illness 529 13.4 Schizophrenia: The Edge of Reality and Consciousness 537 13.5 Personality Disorders 544 13.6 Somatoform, Factitious, and Sexual Disorders 551 13.7 Chapter Summary 559 Chapter 14. Treating Psychological Disorders viii 14. Treating Psychological Disorders 562 14.1 Reducing Disorder by Confronting It: Psychotherapy 565 14.2 Reducing Disorder Biologically: Drug and Brain Therapy 579 14.3 Reducing Disorder by Changing the Social Situation 588 14.4 Evaluating Treatment and Prevention: What Works? 593 14.5 Chapter Summary 601 Chapter 15. Psychology in Our Social Lives 15. Psychology in Our Social Lives 604 15.1 Social Cognition: Making Sense of Ourselves and Others 606 15.2 Interacting With Others: Helping, Hurting, and Conforming 623 15.3 Working With Others: The Costs and Benefits of Social Groups 641 15.4 Chapter Summary 650 Chapter 16. Stress, Health, and Coping 16. Health, Stress, and Coping Jennifer Walinga cc-by 653 16.1 Health and Stress Jennifer Walinga cc-by 655 16.2 Stress and Coping Jennifer Walinga cc-by 661 16.3 Stress, Health, and Coping in the Workplace Jennifer Walinga cc-by 672 16.4 Chapter Summary Jennifer Walinga cc-by 679 About the Authors 680 ix About the Book Introduction to Psychology-1st Canadian Edition was adapted by Jennifer Walinga from Charles Stangor’s textbook, Intro- duction to Psychology . For information about what was changed in this adaptation, refer to the Copyright statement at the bottom of the home page. This adaptation is a part of the B.C. Open Textbook project. In October 2012, the B.C. 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If you are an instructor who is using this book for a course, please let us know. x • INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY - 1ST CANADIAN EDITION x Approach and Pedagogy Charles Stangor From Original Author: Charles Stangor Preface When I first started teaching Introduction to Psychology, I found it difficult — much harder than teaching classes in statistics or research methods. I was able to give a lecture on the sympathetic nervous system, a lecture on Piaget, and a lecture on social cognition, but how could I link these topics together for the student? I felt a bit like I was presenting a laundry list of research findings rather than an integrated set of principles and knowledge. Of course, what was difficult for me was harder still for my students. How could they be expected to remember and understand all the many phe- nomena of psychology? How could they tell what was most important? And why, given the abundance of information that was freely available to them on the web, should they care about my approach? My pedagogy needed something to structure, integrate, and motivate their learning. Eventually, I found some techniques to help my students understand and appreciate what I found to be important. First, I realized that psychology actually did matter to my students, but that I needed to make it clear to them why it did. I therefore created a more consistent focus on the theme of behaviour . One of the most fundamental integrating principles of the discipline of psychology is its focus on behaviour, and yet that is often not made clear to students. Affect, cogni- tion, and motivation are critical and essential, and yet are frequently best understood and made relevant through their links with behaviour. Once I figured this out, I began tying all the material to this concept: The sympathetic nervous system matters because it has specific and predictable influences on our behaviour . Piaget’s findings matter because they help us understand the child’s behaviour (not just his or her thinking). And social cognition matters because our social thinking helps us better relate to the other people in our everyday social lives . This integrating theme allows me to organize my lectures, my writing assignments, and my testing. Second was the issue of empiricism: I emphasized that what seems true might not be true, and we need to try to deter- mine whether it is. The idea of empirical research testing falsifiable hypotheses and explaining much (but never all) behaviour — the idea of psychology as a science — was critical, and it helped me differentiate psychology from other dis- ciplines. Another reason for emphasizing empiricism is that the Introduction to Psychology course represents many students’ best opportunity to learn about the fundamentals of scientific research. The length of existing textbooks was creating a real and unnecessary impediment to student learning. I was condensing and abridging my coverage, but often without a clear rationale for choosing to cover one topic and omit another. My focus on behaviour, coupled with a consistent focus on empiricism, helped in this regard — focusing on these themes helped me identify the underlying principles of psychology and separate more essential topics from less essential ones. Approach and Pedagogy I wrote this book to help students organize their thinking about psychology at a conceptual level. Five or ten years from now, I do not expect my students to remember the details of most of what I teach them. However, I do hope that they will remember that psychology matters because it helps us understand behaviour and that our knowledge of psychology is based on empirical study. xi This book is designed to facilitate these learning outcomes. I have used three techniques to help focus students on behav- iour: 1. Chapter openers. I begin my focus on behaviour by opening each chapter with a chapter opener showcasing an interesting real-world example of people who are dealing with behavioural questions and who can use psychology to help them answer those questions. The opener is designed to draw the student into the chapter and create an interest in learning about the topic. 2. Psychology in everyday life. Each chapter contains one or two features designed to link the principles from the chapter to real-world applications in business, environment, health, law, learning, and other relevant domains. For instance, the application in Chapter 7 “Growing and Developing” — “What Makes a Good Parent?” — applies the concepts of parenting styles in a mini handbook about parenting, and the application in Chapter 4, “Brains, Bodies, and Behaviour,” is about the difficulties that left-handed people face performing everyday tasks in a right-handed world. 3. Research focus. I have also emphasized empiricism throughout, but without making it a distraction from the main story line. Each chapter presents two close-ups on research — well-articulated and specific examples of research within the content area, each including a summary of the hypotheses, methods, results, and interpretations. This feature provides a continuous thread that reminds students of the importance of empirical research. The research foci also emphasize the fact that findings are not always predictable ahead of time (dispelling the myth of hindsight bias) and help students understand how research really works. My focus on behaviour and empiricism has produced a text that is better organized, has fewer chapters, and is somewhat shorter than many of the leading books. Finally, this textbook also includes learning objectives, key takeaways, and exercises and critical thinking activities. In short, I think that this book will provide a useful and productive synthesis between your goals and the goals of your students. I have tried to focus on the forest rather than the trees and to bring psychology to life in ways that really matter for the students. At the same time, the book maintains content and conceptual rigor, with a strong focus on the funda- mental principles of empiricism and the scientific method. xii • INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY - 1ST CANADIAN EDITION Acknowledgments The following statement of acknowledgement is from the original author. The development of Introduction to Psychology was made possible through the combined efforts of many people, each of whom brought special skills to the project. One important resource was an advisory board of instructors from across the country. Their thoughtful and insightful feedback throughout development was invaluable in creating this first edition. I am deeply grateful to the following peo- ple for their time and effort: • M. Janelle Cambron-Mellott, University of Alabama; Birmingham Southern College • Celeste Doerr, Florida State University • Jerry Green, Tarrant County College–NW Campus • Richard Hass, University of Delaware • Adam Hutcheson, University of South Carolina • Matthew I. Isaak, University of Louisiana at Lafayette • Kerry Jordan, Utah State University • Jerwen Jou, University of Texas–Pan American • Peggy Norwood, Community College of Aurora • Karen Rhines, Northampton Community College • Eva Szeli, Arizona State University • Anton Villado, Rice University Introduction to Psychology also benefited from reviews at various stages of the book’s development. Many thanks to the following reviewers for their contributions: • Eileen J. Achorn, The University of Texas at San Antonio • Mara Aruguete, Lincoln University • David Carlston, Midwestern State University • Jenel T. Cavazos, Cameron University • Stephanie B. Ding, Del Mar College • Gaithri A. Fernando, California State University, Los Angeles • William Goggin, University of Southern Mississippi • Karla A. Lassonde, Minnesota State University, Mankato • Greg Loviscky, Pennsylvania State University • Michael A. Mangan, University of New Hampshire, Durham • Anne Moyer, SUNY at Stony Brook • Todd Nelson, California State University, Stanislaus • Bridgette J. Peteet, University of Cincinnati • Brad Pinter, Pennsylvania State University, Altoona • Steven V. Rouse, Pepperdine University • Glenda S. Williams, Lone Star College, North Harris xiii Thanks also to Maren Voss, Hagerstown (MD) Community College, for her research and writing assistance; to Matthew I. Isaak, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, for his work on the accompanying Test Item File and PowerPoint slides; and to Chrissy Chimi and Stacy Claxton of Scribe, Inc., who expertly handled the many details of the production process. And special thanks to the team at Flat World Knowledge. Completion of the book and supplements required the atten- tion of many people, including Michael Boezi, who signed the book and supported my efforts from beginning to end; Pam Hersperger, who managed the book through development; and Gina Huck Siegert, who worked closely with me on all aspects of the project. xiv • INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY - 1ST CANADIAN EDITION Chapter 1. Introducing Psychology 1. Introducing Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behaviour . The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche,” meaning life , and “logos,” meaning explanation . Psychology is a popular major for students, a popular topic in the public media, and a part of our everyday lives. Television shows such as Dr. Phil feature psychologists who provide person- al advice to those with personal or family difficulties. Psychological television crime dramas such as Cracked, Criminal Minds, Psyche, CSI , and others feature the work of forensic psychologists who use psychological principles to help solve crimes. And many people have direct knowledge of psychology because they have visited psychologists, such as school counsellors, family therapists, and religious, marriage, or bereavement counsellors. Because we are frequently exposed to the work of psychologists in our everyday lives, we all have an idea about what psychology is and what psychologists do. In many ways I am sure that your conceptions are correct. Psychologists do work in forensic fields, and they do provide counselling and therapy for people in distress. But there are hundreds of thousands of psychologists in the world, and most of them work in other places, doing work that you are probably not aware of. Most psychologists work in research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings where they study the behaviour of humans and animals. For instance, my colleagues in the Psychology Department at the University of Maryland study such diverse topics as anxiety in children, the interpretation of dreams, the effects of caffeine on thinking, how birds rec- ognize each other, how praying mantises hear, how people from different cultures react differently in negotiation, and the factors that lead people to engage in terrorism. Other psychologists study topics such as alcohol and drug addiction, memory, emotion, hypnosis, love, what makes people aggressive or helpful, and the psychologies of politics, prejudice, culture, and religion. Psychologists also work in schools and businesses, and they use a variety of methods, including observation, questionnaires, interviews, and laboratory studies, to help them understand behaviour. This chapter provides an introduction to the broad field of psychology and the many approaches that psychologists take to understanding human behaviour. We will consider how psychologists conduct scientific research, with an overview of some of the most important approaches used and topics studied by psychologists, and also consider the variety of fields in which psychologists work and the careers that are available to people with psychology degrees. I expect that you may find that at least some of your preconceptions about psychology will be challenged and changed, and you will learn that psychology is a field that will provide you with new ways of thinking about your own thoughts, feelings, and actions. 2 Figure 1.1 Psychology is in Part the Study of Behaviour. Why do you think these people are behaving the way they are? Source: “Friendly smoking” by Valentin Ottone (http://www.flickr.com/photos/saneboy/ 3595175373/) is licensed under CC BY 2.0. “At the beach” by Julian Schüngel (http://www.flickr.com/photos/medevac71/4468071278/) is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0. “Bar Trek and friends” by Jim H (http://www.flickr.com/photos/greyloch/10970542456/ in/photostream/) is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. “Physical therapist” by U.S. Navy photo (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:US_Navy_081610-A-6522B-002_Physical_therapist_Lt._Cmdr._Mitchel_Ideue,_Officer_in_Charge_of_Inpatient_Services_at_ is in the public domain. “couple yelling at each other” by Vic (http://www.flickr.com/photos/ 59632563@N04/6238711264/in/photostream/) is licensed under CC BY 2.0. 1. INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY • 3 THIS TEXTBOOK IS AVAILABLE FOR FREE AT OPEN.BCCAMPUS.CA 1.1 Psychology as a Science Learning Objectives 1. Explain why using our intuition about everyday behaviour is insufficient for a complete understanding of the causes of behaviour. 2. Describe the difference between values and facts and explain how the scientific method is used to differentiate between the two. Despite the differences in their interests, areas of study, and approaches, all psychologists have one thing in common: they rely on scientific methods. Research psychologists use scientific methods to create new knowledge about the causes of behaviour , whereas psychologist-practitioners , such as clinical, counselling, industrial-organizational, and school psychologists, use existing research to enhance the everyday life of others . The science of psychology is important for both researchers and practitioners. In a sense all humans are scientists. We all have an interest in asking and answering questions about our world. We want to know why things happen, when and if they are likely to happen again, and how to reproduce or change them. Such knowledge enables us to predict our own behaviour and that of others. We may even collect data (i.e., any informa- tion collected through formal observation or measurement ) to aid us in this undertaking. It has been argued that people are “everyday scientists” who conduct research projects to answer questions about behaviour (Nisbett & Ross, 1980). When we perform poorly on an important test, we try to understand what caused our failure to remember or understand the material and what might help us do better the next time. When our good friends Monisha and Charlie break up, despite the fact that they appeared to have a relationship made in heaven, we try to determine what happened. When we con- template the rise of terrorist acts around the world, we try to investigate the causes of this problem by looking at the terrorists themselves, the situation around them, and others’ responses to them. The Problem of Intuition The results of these “everyday” research projects can teach us many principles of human behaviour. We learn through experience that if we give someone bad news, he or she may blame us even though the news was not our fault. We learn that people may become depressed after they fail at an important task. We see that aggressive behaviour occurs fre- quently in our society, and we develop theories to explain why this is so. These insights are part of everyday social life. In fact, much research in psychology involves the scientific study of everyday behaviour (Heider, 1958; Kelley, 1967). The problem, however, with the way people collect and interpret data in their everyday lives is that they are not always particularly thorough. Often, when one explanation for an event seems right, we adopt that explanation as the truth even when other explanations are possible and potentially more accurate. For example, eyewitnesses to violent crimes are often extremely confident in their identifications of the perpetrators of these crimes. But research finds that eyewit- nesses are no less confident in their identifications when they are incorrect than when they are correct (Cutler & Wells, 2009; Wells & Hasel, 2008). People may also become convinced of the existence of extrasensory perception (ESP), or the predictive value of astrology, when there is no evidence for either (Gilovich, 1993). Furthermore, psychologists have also found that there are a variety of cognitive and motivational biases that frequently influence our perceptions and lead 4 us to draw erroneous conclusions (Fiske & Taylor, 2007; Hsee & Hastie, 2006). In summary, accepting explanations for events without testing them thoroughly may lead us to think that we know the causes of things when we really do not. Research Focus: Unconscious Preferences for the Letters of Our Own Name A study reported in the Journal of Consumer Research (Brendl, Chattopadhyay, Pelham, & Carvallo, 2005) demon- strates the extent to which people can be unaware of the causes of their own behaviour. The research demon- strated that, at least under certain conditions (and although they do not know it), people frequently prefer brand names that contain the letters of their own name to brand names that do not contain the letters of their own name. The research participants were recruited in pairs and were told that the research was a taste test of different types of tea. For each pair of participants, the experimenter created two teas and named them by adding the word stem “oki” to the first three letters of each participant’s first name. For example, for Jonathan and Elisabeth, the names of the teas would have been Jonoki and Elioki. The participants were then shown 20 packets of tea that were supposedly being tested. Eighteen packets were labelled with made-up Japanese names (e.g., Mataku; Somuta), and two were labelled with the brand names con- structed from the participants’ names. The experimenter explained that each participant would taste only two teas and would be allowed to choose one packet of these two to take home. One of the two participants was asked to draw slips of paper to select the two brands that would be tasted at this session. However, the drawing was rigged so that the two brands containing the participants’ name stems were always chosen for tasting. Then, while the teas were being brewed, the participants completed a task designed to heighten their need for self-esteem, and that was expected to increase their desire to choose a brand that had the letters of their own name. Specifically, the participants all wrote about an aspect of themselves that they would like to change. After the teas were ready, the participants tasted them and then chose to take a packet of one of the teas home with them. After they made their choice, the participants were asked why they chose the tea they had chosen, and then the true purpose of the study was explained to them. The results of this study found that participants chose the tea that included the first three letters of their own name significantly more frequently (64% of the time) than they chose the tea that included the first three letters of their partner’s name (only 36% of the time). Furthermore, the decisions were made unconsciously; the partici- pants did not know why they chose the tea they chose. When they were asked, more than 90% of the participants thought that they had chosen on the basis of taste, whereas only 5% of them mentioned the real cause — that the brand name contained the letters of their name. Once we learn about the outcome of a given event (e.g., when we read about the results of a research project), we fre- quently believe that we would have been able to predict the outcome ahead of time. For instance, if half of a class of students is told that research concerning attraction between people has demonstrated that “opposites attract” and the other half is told that research has demonstrated that “birds of a feather flock together,” most of the students will report believing that the outcome that they just read about is true, and that they would have predicted the outcome before they had read about it. Of course, both of these contradictory outcomes cannot be true. (In fact, psychological research finds that “birds of a feather flock together” is generally the case.) The problem is that just reading a description of research findings leads us to think of the many cases we know that support the findings, and thus makes them seem believable. 1.1 PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE • 5 THIS TEXTBOOK IS AVAILABLE FOR FREE AT OPEN.BCCAMPUS.CA The tendency to think that we could have predicted something that has already occurred that we probably would not have been able to predict is called the hindsight bias Why Psychologists Rely on Empirical Methods All scientists, whether they are physicists, chemists, biologists, sociologists, or psychologists, use empirical methods to study the topics that interest them. Empirical methods include the processes of collecting and organizing data and draw- ing conclusions about those data . The empirical methods used by scientists have developed over many years and provide a basis for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data within a common framework in which information can be shared. We can label the scientific method as the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures that scientists use to conduct empirical research Although scientific research is an important method of studying human behaviour, not all questions can be answered using scientific approaches. Statements that cannot be objectively measured or objectively determined to be true or false are not within the domain of scientific inquiry. Scientists therefore draw a distinction between values and facts. Values are personal statements such as “Abortion should not be permitted in this country,” “I will go to heaven when I die,” or “It is important to study psychology.” Facts are objective statements determined to be accurate through empirical study . Examples are “There were more than 21,000 homicides in Canada in 2009” or “Research demonstrates that individuals who are exposed to highly stressful situations over long periods of time develop more health problems than those who are not.” Because values cannot be considered to be either true or false, science cannot prove or disprove them. Nevertheless, as shown in Table 1.1, research can sometimes provide facts that can help people develop their values. For instance, science may be able to objectively measure the impact of unwanted children on a society or the psychological trauma suffered by women who have abortions. The effect of imprisonment on the crime rate in Canada may also be determinable. This factual information can and should be made available to help people formulate their values about abortion and incar- ceration, as well as to enable governments to articulate appropriate policies. Values also frequently come into play in determining what research is appropriate or important to conduct. For instance, the Canadian government has recently increased funding for university research, designating $37 million annually to the three major research councils dealing with health, social science, and the sciences (Research Canada, 2014). Table 1.1 Examples of Values and Facts in Scientific Research. Source: Huffington Post, 2014. Personal value Scientific fact The environment should be protected. The Canadian government has reduced environmental funding by $200 million but annually pays more than $1.4 billion in subsidies to the oil and gas industry. Practical work experience helps to develop skilled workers. More than $100 million for interest-free loans will be available in 2014 through the Canada Apprentice Loan program, an expansion of the Canada Student Loans Program. Technology is increasingly necessary. The federal government in Canada will invest $305 million over five years to extend high-speed broadband to some 280,000 homes in 2014. It is important to quit smoking. The Canadian government will raise the cost of cigarettes by more than $4 on a carton in 2014. Although scientists use research to help establish facts, the distinction between values and facts is not always clear-cut. Sometimes statements that scientists consider to be factual turn out later, on the basis of further research, to be partially 6 • INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY - 1ST CANADIAN EDITION THIS TEXTBOOK IS AVAILABLE FOR FREE AT OPEN.BCCAMPUS.CA