Development As A Battlefield International Development Policy Editor-in-Chief Gilles Carbonnier ( Professor of Development Economics, The Graduate Institute, Geneva ) Guest Editors Irene Bono ( Assistant Professor of Political Science, University of Torino ) Béatrice Hibou ( Senior Research Fellow at the Centre d’Études et de Recherches Internationales, Paris ) VOLUME 8 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/idp Editorial Board Marc Bacchetta ( Counsellor, Economic Research and Statistics Division, wto ) Jean-François Bayart ( Director of Research, Centre of Research and International Studies (ceri), Sciences Po, Paris, France ) Carlos Casas ( Director of Center for Studies in Mining and Sustainability, Lima, Peru ) Francis Cheneval ( Professor of Political Philosophy, University of Zurich, Switzerland ) Suren Erkman ( Director, Institute of Land Use Policies and Human Environment, University of Lausanne, Switzerland ) Marcela Eslava ( Associate Professor, Universidad de los Andes, Colombia ) Till Förster ( Professor of Social Anthropology, Institute of Social Anthropology, University of Basel, Switzerland ) Ricardo Fuentes-Nieva ( Chief Executive Officer, Oxfam Mexico ) Inge Kaul ( Adjunct Professor, Hertie School of Governance, Berlin, Germany ) Xiaoyun Li ( Dean of the College of Humanities and Development Studies, China Agricultural University, and Chief Senior Advisor, International Poverty Reduction Center, China ) Pamela Martin ( Professor in Political Science and Geography, Coastal Carolina University, usa ) Katharina Michaelowa ( Professor of Political Economy and Development, Institute of Political Science, University of Zurich; Director, Center for Comparative and International Studies, Zurich, Switzerland ) Hassan Mshinda ( Director, Tanzanian Commission for Science and Technology (costech) ) Patrick Osakwe ( Head, Trade and Poverty Branch Division for Africa, ldcs and Special Programmes, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (unctad) ) Ugo Panizza ( Professor of Economics, The Graduate Institute, Geneva, Switzerland ) Dennis Rodgers ( Professor of International Development Studies, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands ) Jorge Alberto Restrepo Torres ( Associate Professor, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogota, Colombia ) Elizabeth Sidiropoulos ( Chief Executive, South African Institute of International Affairs (saia), South Africa ) Mahaman Tidjani Alou ( Dean of the Faculty of Economics and Law and Professor, Abdou Moumouni University, Niamey, Niger ) James Zhan ( Director, Division of Investment and Enterprise, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (unctad) ) Managing Editor Frances Rice/Marie Thorndahl Research and Communication Officer Emmanuelle Dalle Mulle/Nurgul Tilenbaeva Figure Layout y-b design www.ybdigital.com Copyeditor Dave Brooks Translation Andrew Brown Cover Photo Aurélie Lecarpentier [Aalek] (2012) Visit International Development Policy and associated documents online http://devpol.org International Development Policy Previous Titles Africa: 50 Years of Independence , No. 1, Geneva: Graduate Institute Publications, 2010, issn print 1663–9383 | issn online 1663–9405 | ean 9782940415274. Energy and Development , No. 2, Basingstoke/Geneva: Palgrave Macmillan/Graduate Institute Publications, 2011, ean 9780230282483. Aid , Emerging Economies and Global Policies , No. 3, Basingstoke/Geneva: Palgrave Macmillan/Graduate Institute Publications, 2012, ean 9781137003409. Religion and Development , No. 4, Basingstoke/Geneva: Palgrave Macmillan/Graduate Institute Publications, 2013, ean 9781137329370. Education, Learning, Training: Critical Issues for Development , No. 5, Leiden|Boston/Geneva: Brill Nijhoff/Graduate Institute Publications, 2014, ean 9789004281141. Large-Scale Land Acquisitions, F ocus on South-East Asia, No. 6, Leiden|Boston/Geneva: Brill Nijhoff/Graduate Institute Publications 2015, ean 9789004304741. Combining Economic and Political Development, The Experience of mena, No. 7 Leiden|Boston/Geneva: Brill Nijhoff/Graduate Institute Publications 2017, ean 9789004336452. THE GRADUATE INSTITUTE | GENEVA Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies Institut de hautes études internationales et du développement Research Office/Publications p.o. Box 1672 CH–1211 Geneva 1 Switzerland publications@graduateinstitute.ch http://www.graduateinstitute.ch/home/research/publications.html Development As A Battlefield Edited By Irene Bono Béatrice Hibou leiden | boston This is an open access book distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC license at the time of publication, which permits any non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduc- tion in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. Cover illustration: Street scene in the old town of Iiaret, Algeria, 18 December 2012. Photographer © Aurélie Lecarpentier [Aalek] The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available online at http://catalog.loc.gov lc record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2017027627 Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface. issn 1663-9383 isbn 978-90-04-34952-0 (paperback) isbn 978-90-04-34955-1 (e-book) Copyright 2017 by the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies. Koninklijke Brill nv incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi and Hotei Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill nv provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, ma 01923, usa. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner. Contents Foreword ix Preface xii List of Illustrations xiii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations XIV Notes on Contributors XVI Introduction 1 1 Development as a Battlefield 3 Irene Bono and Béatrice Hibou PART 1 Conflicts that Create Consensus 2 Two Lives of Developmentalism: A Polanyian View from Turkey 37 Ayşe Buğra 3 Workers vs Machines: Ottoman Tunis between Industrialisation and Colonisation 61 Nora Lafi 4 ‘An Uphill Job Demanding Limitless Patience’. The Establishment of Trade Unions and the Conflicts of Development in Sudan, 1946–1952 81 Elena Vezzadini 5 The Activities of Adl Wal Ihsane in the Neighbourhoods. How to Build a ‘Non-Legal’ Consensus from a ‘Tolerated’ Conflict 109 Merieme Yafout viii Contents PART 2 Consensus as An Expression of Conflict 6 War and State (Re)Construction in Afghanistan: Conflicts of Tradition or Conflicts of Development? 137 Fariba Adelkhah 7 Resisting Neo-Liberal Skylines: Social Mobilisations and Entrepreneurial Urban Development in Tel Aviv 164 Adriana Kemp and Talia Margalit 8 A ‘Time’ to Act: The 2015–20 Development Plan for Greater Casablanca 189 Nadia Hachimi Alaoui 9 The Muslim Brotherhood’s ‘Virtuous Society’ and State Developmentalism in Egypt: The Politics of ‘Goodness’ 220 Marie Vannetzel PART 3 The Definition of Legitimate Conflicts 10 Development and Countermovements. Reflections on the Conflicts Arising from the Commodification of Collective Land in Morocco 247 Yasmine Berriane 11 Charity and Commercial Success as Vectors of Asymmetry and Inequality: The Unconceptualised Elements of Development in Islamist Sudan during the First Republic 268 Raphaëlle Chevrillon-Guibert 12 A Neo-liberal Exception? The Defence Industry ‘Turkification’ Project 299 Anouck Gabriela Côrte-réal Pinto Index 333 Foreword I’m pleased to introduce Development as a Battlefield : an innovative explo- ration of the multidimensional meanings of—and interactions between— conflict and development. The two phenomena are all too often regarded as ostensibly antagonistic. This was exemplified again in the context of the Arab Spring that erupted in December 2010 and was eventually short-lived in several countries of the Middle-East and North-Africa (mena) region. This volume— the 8th thematic issue of International Development Policy —is an invitation to reconsider and renew the way social scientists usually seek to make sense of socio-political and economic developments in the mena region and beyond. To achieve this, the guest editors bring together a set of contributions that collectively bridge anthropology, history, political sociology and political econ- omy. The volume draws on the expertise of a dozen authors who present and discuss research carried out in countries spanning a region strictly larger than ‘mena’: it includes a geographical area ranging from Afghanistan in the East to Morocco in the West, and from Turkey in the North to Sudan in the South. The multiplicity of this volume’s compilation also mirrors a central premise of International Development Policy , which is to address critical issue domains from interdisciplinary, multi-level angles to account for the complexity of the social dynamics at work. I wish to commend the guest editors, Béatrice Hibou and Irene Bono, for bringing together such a wealth of perspectives by invit- ing selected scholars—all of them women—who share a deep understanding of past-present, local–global interactions that infuse power relations. Many of the authors originate from the region under study. Overall, this special issue makes a convincing case for reconsidering widely- held assumptions about past and ongoing conflicts as well as development trajectories in ‘mena countries’ and neighbouring Sudan and Afghanistan. Through an in-depth examination of the evolving social reality anchored in specific institutional and historic circumstances, the authors demonstrate the need to stay clear of homogeneous approaches that neglect the pluralistic socio-political landscapes of a region too easily subsumed under one group referred to as the Arab or mena countries. The contributions in this volume challenge the widely-shared belief that these countries represent an excep- tion in the developing world, a supposed space of ‘ungovernability’ charac- terised by ‘extraneous’ states ruling over an undisciplined population that inevitably leads to submission-revolt cycles. The chapters further challenge the assumption that Islam, or a deep sense of clan or ethnic identity, act as an obstacle to development, due to beliefs and values that prevent the advent of x Foreword a techno-rational order associated with modernity. Violence associated with power asymmetries is part and parcel of political relations and could be con- sidered analytically relevant from a development viewpoint, rather than a de- fining characteristic of a homogenous cultural and geopolitical ‘mena region’. That said, the authors acknowledge that development shortfalls may partly account for the uprisings and conflicts witnessed in the countries under re- view. However, they question the idea of an inverse linear relationship between development and conflict. The notion of development itself, often defined as a process of profound social transformation, is contested and understood differ- ently depending on the scale of analysis, discipline and prevailing narratives. In their introductory chapter, Irene Bono and Béatrice Hibou note that devel- opment appears not only as a practice and central paradigm in international relations, but also as a narrative and an ideology embedded in power relations. They define development as ‘a set of complex social relations and a balance of power oscillating constantly between consensus and conflict’. This compilation of chapters offers novel insights on regional, national and local dynamics involving developmental concerns such as justice, equity, gov- ernmentality and citizens’ role in society. Through an in-depth examination of development cycles linked to defining historic events and by distinguishing between incremental change and disruption, the authors factor in local and global dynamics to analyse the conflicts and tensions associated with globali- sation. Their insights are pertinent from both an academic and policy view- point. These insights on the conflict-development nexus will be of interest for all those who care about a region whose fate matters a great deal not only for the people who live there, but for all of us. The guest editors have led this ambitious project to successful fruition, re- sulting in a compelling collection of articles under the title of Development as a Battlefield . A workshop, organized on 7–8 September 2015 in Geneva, brought together all the authors and selected experts to review each draft paper and make suggestions for improvements. I join the guest editors in thanking Jean- François Bayart, Yvan Droz and Didier Péclard for insightful remarks and sug- gestions at this workshop. My thanks go also to the authors, who revised their articles in two successive rounds: first after the Geneva workshop and then in response to the remarks raised by an anonymous reviewer who carefully ex- amined the draft volume as a whole and raised critical comments on individ- ual contributions. I wish to extend our gratitude to the anonymous reviewer. Marie Thorndahl initiated this special issue as former managing editor of our journal. Frances Rice took over by end-2015, and was supported by Emmanuel Dalle Mulle and several other colleagues. My thanks go to all of them for their efficient editorial support. xi Foreword This volume is an invitation to ‘think again’. It is indeed high time to recon- sider the development-conflict nexus in a region whose population has been facing violence and insecurity for many decades and whose fate will deter- mine global security, migration, development and humanitarian agendas in the years to come. This special issue makes the convincing case of dismiss- ing sweeping statements and simple policy recipes. It calls for localising or grounding interventions in specific polities where the driving force lies above all in the citizenry—youth, women and men who wish to improve livelihoods and have a say in their own development trajectories. Gilles Carbonnier Editor-in-Chief Preface International Development Policy is a critical source of analysis of development policy and international cooperation trends and is aimed at scholars, policy- makers and development professionals. It offers a diverse range of academic views from both industrialised countries and emerging economies. International Development Policy is edited by the Graduate Institute of In- ternational and Development Studies, an institution of research and higher education dedicated to advancing world affairs. Located in Geneva at the heart of an international centre of multilateral governance, the Graduate Institute benefits from a rich legacy linked to the founding of the international system and the League of Nations in the 1920s, and the emergence of the developing world in the 1960s. http://graduateinstitute.ch/publications http://devpol.org | http://debate.devpol.org We extend our thanks to the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (sdc) for its financial support. List of Illustrations Figures 11.1 Map of Sudan and the evolution of its borders 269 Tables 12.1 Main Turkish defence companies in 2013 (in terms of turnover) 313 12.2 Exponential development of sales figures for the leading national companies in the defence industry between 2002 and 2014 (millions try) 314 12.3 The changing numbers of contracts allocated to tübitak, the other great beneficiary of the Turkification of the defence industry, between 2006 and 2012 (millions try) 315 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations adfm Democratic Association of Women of Morocco (Association démocratique des femmes du Maroc) akp Justice and Development Party ( Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi ) iara Islamic African Relief Agency awi Justice and Spirituality ( Al Adl Wal Ihsane ) bte Institute of Information Technologies ( Bilişim Teknolojileri Enstitüsü ) bilgem Informatics and Information Security Research Center ( Bilişim ve Bilgi Güvenliği İleri Teknolojiler Araştırma Merkezi ) brts Bus Rapid Transit System cbd Central Business District cda Community Development Association cri Regional Investment Centre (Centre régional d’investissement) dgcl General Management of Local Groups (Direction générale des collectivités locales) dyp True Path Party ( Doğru Yol Partisi ) eec European Economic Community gs Sharia Association ( Gam‘iyya al-Shar‘iyya ) ila Israeli Land Administration ilo International Labour Organization ima Islamic Medical Association imf International Monetary Fund indh National Initiative for Human Development (Initiative nationale du développement humain) isaf International Security Assistance Force mena Middle East and North Africa mkek Mechanical and Chemical Industry Corporation ( Makina ve Kimya Endüstrisi Kurumu ) mpdc Constitutional Democratic Popular Movement (Mouvement populaire démocratique constitutionnel) mur Movement of Unification and Reform (Mouvement de l’unification et de la réforme) müsiad Independent Industrialists and Businessmen Association ( Müstakil Sanayici ve İşadamları Derneği ) nato North Atlantic Treaty Organization ndp National Democratic Party ngo Non-Governmental Organisation nhp National Housing Program xv List of Acronyms and Abbreviations nimby Not in my back yard oecd Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development pdf Popular Defence Forces pjd Justice and Development Party (Parti Justice et Développement) pkk Kurdistan Workers’ Party ( Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan ) rsf Rapid Support Forces sme Small and medium-sized enterprise smi Société Métallurgique d’Imider smnl Sudan Movement of National Liberation ssi Union of Exporters of the Defence Industry and Aeronautics ( Savunma ve Havacilik Sanayi İhracatçilari Birliği ) swtuf Sudan Workers’ Trade Union Federation tai Turkish Aerospace Industries toki Mass Housing Development Administration ( Toplu Konut İdaresi Başkanlığı ) tübitak Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey ( Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Araştırma Kurumu ) tuc Trades Union Congress tüsiad Turkish Industry and Business Association ( Türk Sanayicileri ve İşadamları Derneği ) tskgv Foundation for Strengthening the Turkish Armed Forces ( Türk Silahlı Kuvvetlerini Güçlendirme Vakfı ) uekae National Research Institute in Electronics and Cryptology ( Ulusal Elektronik ve Kriptoloji Araştırma Enstitüsü) usaid United States Agency for International Development waa Workers’ Affairs Association Notes on Contributors Fariba Adelkhah is an anthropologist and director of research at the Fondation nationale des sciences politiques (SciencesPo-ceri) in Paris, France. She is the author of Be- ing Modern in Iran (Hurst, 1999) and Les Mille et une frontières de l’Iran. Quand les voyages forment la nation (Karthala, 2012), and edited the special issue of the Revue d’études du monde musulman et de la Méditerranée on ‘Guerres et terres en Afghanistan’ (2013). Yasmine Berriane is a senior researcher and lecturer at the University of Zurich. She received her doctorate in Political Sociology from the Institute of Political Studies in Paris. Author of Femmes, associations et politique à Casablanca (Editions du Centre Jacques Berque, 2013), she is currently conducting research on social and po- litical change and the commodification of land in Morocco. Irene Bono is Assistant Professor of Political Science at the University of Torino, Italy. She is also research associate at the Mohamed vi Polytechnic University in Rabat, Morocco. Her research interests focus on the government of inequality and the role of non-institutional actors in the formation and transformation of the state. Ayşe Buğra is Professor of Political Economy at the Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History in Istanbul, Turkey. She has written on the history and methodology of economics, development economics and comparative social policy. She is also the translator into Turkish of The Great Transformation by Karl Polanyi (1986). Raphaëlle Chevrillon-Guibert is a research fellow in political economy at the French National Institute for Sustainable Development (ird), and at the prodig Joint Research Unit in Paris, France. For more than ten years, she has investigated patterns of Islamist hegemony in Sudan. Anouck Gabriela Côrte-réal Pinto is a post-doctoral researcher at the School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences (ehess, Paris), seconded to the French Institute of Anatolian Stud- ies (ifea) in Istanbul, Turkey. Côrte-réal Pinto’s research interests include the xvii Notes on Contributors sociological history of the economy, Turkish–European relations and civil– military relations. Nadia Hachimi Alaoui is a doctoral student at Sciences Po Aix, France, where she is completing her PhD on the wali and practices of government. She is affiliated to the Centre de Recherche Economie, Société, Culture (cresc) at the Faculty of Econom- ics and Social Sciences of the University Mohammed vi Polytechnic (Rabat, Morocco) where she is also scientific secretary to the Chair of Comparative African Studies. Béatrice Hibou is cnrs Senior Research Fellow at the Centre d’Études et de Recherches In- ternationales (ceri) in Paris, France. She is co-director of the Centre de Re- cherche, Économie, Société et Culture, Mohamed vi Polytechnic, University of Rabat, Morocco. Her comparative research in political economy focuses on the political significance of economic reform, state trajectories and the exercise of domination in Africa and Europe, from a Weberian perspective. Adriana Kemp is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Sociology and Anthro- pology at Tel Aviv University, Israel. Her areas of research are citizenship and migration, neoliberal politics and urban governance. Nora Lafi is a historian at the Leibniz-Zentrum Moderner Orient in Berlin, Germany. She also teaches at the Free University of Berlin (Faculty of Islamwissenschaft) and the Berlin Graduate School Muslim Cultures and Societies. Talia Margalit is Senior Lecturer at the Azrieli School of Architecture, Tel Aviv University, Israel. Her areas of research are urban planning and citizenship, neoliberal pol- icies and urban development. She specialised in Israeli planning and Tel Aviv. Marie Vannetzel is a researcher in political sociology at the cnrs in Amiens, France (curapp), and a member of the European Research Council-funded programme, ‘When Authoritarianism Fails in the Arab World’. She completed her PhD on the local mobilisation of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and curently studies post- 2011 electoral dynamics. xviii Notes on Contributors Elena Vezzadini is a research fellow at the Institut des Mondes Africains (imaf/cnrs) in Paris, France. Her research interests include the social history of the first Sudanese nationalist movement, nationalism and memory, colonialism and the aboli- tion of slavery, and the army up to the 1920s. She is the author of Lost Nation- alism: Revolution, Memory and Anti-colonial Resistance in Sudan , published in 2015 (James Currey). Merieme Yafout is a visiting professor at the University of Turin, Italy and the University of Lau- sanne, Switzerland. A specialist on the theme of women, religion and politics, she has conducted academic research in Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt and Italy, and has worked as a researcher for a number of international organisations. Introduction ∵