The Life of August Wilhelm Schlegel, Cosmopolitan of Art and Poetry R OGER P AULIN To access digital resources including: blog posts videos online appendices and to purchase copies of this book in: hardback paperback ebook editions Go to: https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/25 Open Book Publishers is a non-profit independent initiative. We rely on sales and donations to continue publishing high-quality academic works. The Life of August Wilhelm Schlegel Cosmopolitan of Art and Poetry Roger Paulin http://www.openbookpublishers.com © 2016 Roger Paulin This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0). This license allows you to share, copy, distribute and transmit the text; to adapt the text and to make commercial use of the text providing attribution is made to the author (but not in any way that suggests that he endorses you or your use of the work). Attribution should include the following information: Paulin, Roger, The Life of August Wilhelm Schlegel, Cosmopolitan of Art and Poetry. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0069 Further details about CC BY licenses are available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Please see the list of illustrations for attribution relating to individual images. Every effort has been made to identify and contact copyright holders and any omission or error will be corrected if notification is made to the publisher. For information about the rights of the Wikimedia Commons images, please refer to the Wikimedia website (the relevant links are listed in the list of illustrations). 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Portrait of Schlegel in the 1840s from Flickr Commons, in the Internet Archive Book Images collection, https://www.flickr. com/photos/internetarchivebookimages/14777435381 All paper used by Open Book Publishers is SFI (Sustainable Forestry Initiative), PEFC (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification Schemes) and Forest Stewardship Council(r)(FSC(r) certified. Printed in the United Kingdom, United States, and Australia by Lightning Source for Open Book Publishers (Cambridge, UK). Contents Acknowledgements xi List of Abbreviations xiii Introduction 1 1. Family, Childhood and Youth (1767-1794) 11 Antecedents 11 ‘From One House Four Such Marvellous Minds’ 13 Johann Adolf Schlegel 17 Growing Up in Hanover 20 Siblings 23 Childhood and Schooling 27 Göttingen 30 Gottfried August Bürger: ‘Young Eagle’ 37 The First Translations 46 Johann Dominik Fiorillo 48 Caroline Michaelis-Böhmer 50 Summer 1791-Summer 1795: Amsterdam, Mainz, Leipzig 52 Caroline’s Tribulations 54 Schlegel in Amsterdam 59 ‘Du, Caroline und ich’: Friedrich Schlegel 62 2. Jena and Berlin (1795-1804) 65 2.1 Jena 70 Die Horen 74 Goethe and Schiller on the Attack: The Xenien 79 Schlegel’s Reviews: Language, Metrics 83 Dante 88 The Shakespeare Translation 91 The Wilhelm Meister Essay 99 The Jena Group 109 The Genesis of the Athenaeum 115 The Group Meets in Dresden 121 Professor in Jena 125 The Fichte Affair 129 The Scandal of Lucinde 132 Foregathering in Jena 135 The First Strains 139 The Death of Auguste Böhmer 143 Elegies for the Dead and the Living 146 Schlegel’s Contributions to the Athenaeum 154 The Essays on Art 159 Schlegel’s Lectures in Jena 166 2.2 Berlin (1801-1804) 169 The End of Jena: Controversies and Polemics 169 The Essay on Bürger 172 Sophie Tieck-Bernhardi 182 The Ion Fiasco 186 Polemics, Caricatures and Lampoons 189 Friedrich Schlegel’s Europa 192 Calderón 198 2.3 The Berlin Lectures 202 3. The Years with Madame de Staël (1804-1817) 221 Holding Things Together 221 Germaine de Staël-Holstein 225 Madame de Staël and Germany 230 The Meeting of Staël and Schlegel 234 Schlegel in Coppet 240 In Italy with Madame de Staël 1804-1805 249 3.1 With Madame de Staël in Coppet and Acosta 1805-1807 260 The Writer in Diaspora 260 Considérations sur la civilisation en général 267 On some Tragic Roles of Madame de Staël 269 Corinne, ou l’Italie 273 Swiss Journeyings with Albert de Staël 279 Comparaison entre la Phèdre de Racine et celle d’Euripide (1807) 281 3.2 Vienna 290 Travelling to Vienna with Madame de Staël 293 Friedrich Schlegel: Rome and India 296 The Vienna Lectures 299 Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature 302 Further Travels 314 Back to Coppet 318 De l’Allemagne 325 Holed up in Berne 330 The Dash to Vienna 334 De l’Allemagne : The Book Itself 337 The Last Days in Coppet 341 3.3 The Flight: Caught Up in History 345 Through Germany, Austria and Russia, to Sweden 349 In the Service of Bernadotte: The Political Pamphleteer 356 Political and Military Developments 1813-1814 364 England and France 1814 376 The Return to Scholarship 380 Italy, Coppet, Paris: The Death of Madame de Staël 383 3.4 Scholarly Matters 393 Learned Reviews 397 Medieval Studies 407 The Nibelungenlied 409 4. Bonn and India (1818-1845) 415 4.1 Bonn 415 ‘Chevalier de plusieurs ordres’ 415 Auguste and Albertine 417 The European Celebrity 421 Friedrich Schlegel in Frankfurt 430 Marriage 435 The University of Bonn 442 The Bonn Professor 448 The Carlsbad Decrees 453 The Professor’s Day 458 Teacher and Taught 463 The Content of the Lectures 471 4.2 India 478 The Indische Bibliothek 490 Paris and London 1820-1823 497 Educating the Young 504 Paris and London Again 509 The Sanskrit Editions 515 5. The Past Returns 521 Friedrich Schlegel 522 Ludwig Tieck 526 Goethe 529 The 1827 Art Lectures in Berlin 536 Heinrich Heine 540 5.1 The Last Years 1834-1845 546 The Works of Frederick the Great 557 Illness and Death 560 Epilogue 563 Short Biographies 567 Select Bibliography 603 List of Illustrations 617 Index 625 The true translator, one could state boldly, who is able to render not just the content of a masterpiece, but also to preserve its noble form, its peculiar idiom, is a herald of genius who, over and beyond the narrow confines set by the separation of language, spreads abroad its fame and broadcasts its high gifts. He is a messenger from nation to nation, who mediates mutual respect and admiration, where otherwise all is indifference or even enmity. August Wilhelm von Schlegel The Schlegel Coat of Arms (‘Schlegel von Gottleben’). © SLUB Dresden, all rights reserved Acknowledgements Work on this project has been greatly assisted by my easy access to the large Schlegel holdings in Cambridge University Library and in the Wren Library, Trinity College, Cambridge. David Lowe and Christian Staufenbiel of Cambridge University Library and Sandy Paul and the staff of the Wren Library have been of invaluable help in my researches. I am grateful to the following institutions for allowing me to consult and/ or refer to unpublished material in their possession: Edinburgh, National Library of Scotland (Murray Archives); Bonn, Universitätsbibliothek, Handschriftenabteilung; Bonn, Universitätsarchiv; Coburg, Landesarchiv; Dresden, Sächsische Staats- Landes- und Universitätsbibliothek; Kupferstich-Kabinett, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden; Hanover, Landeskirchliches Archiv; Hanover, Ev. Lutherische Stadtkirchenkanzlei; Heidelberg, Universitätsbibliothek; Jena, Universitätsarchiv; Wolfenbüttel, Herzog August Bibliothek. Hans-Joachim Dopfer (Sigmaringen) kindly permitted me to use the portrait drawing of Schlegel. I am indebted to fellow scholars working in the same field: Claudia Becker, who generously placed Ernst Behler’s Nachlass at my disposal; Anil Bhatti; Cornelia Bögel, who in addition gave me great assistance with my manuscript; Ralf Georg Czapla; Christoph Jamme; Stefan Knödler; Margaret Rose; Jochen Strobel; Rosane and Ludo Rocher kindly gave me much useful advice on Sanskrit and answered my questions; Roger Dawe gave me guidance in matters relating to Classics, Pat Boyde with regard to Italian. Stephen Fennell encouraged me to start writing; Julia Allen, David Blamires, Barry Nisbet, Helmut Pfotenhauer, and my wife, Traute, read all or part of the manuscript and made helpful suggestions towards its improvement. Responsibility for what is written lies with me alone. Anne and Thomas Bürger extended kind hospitality to me during my various visits to Dresden; Rolf Herrfahrdt similarly in Hanover. xii The Life of August Wilhelm Schlegel The Fellows’ Research Fund of Trinity College kindly met the costs of my archival visits to Bonn, Dresden, Heidelberg and Hanover. I wish to record my grateful thanks to Trinity College and to the Deparment of German, University of Cambridge (Schröder Fund) who made generous grants towards the production of this book. A final word of cordial thanks to all at Open Book Publishers, who have seen this book through its various stages to its conclusion. October 2015, Trinity College Cambridge List of Abbreviations Athenaeum : Athenaeum. Eine Zeitschrift von August Wilhelm Schlegel und Friedrich Schlegel , 3 vols (Berlin: Vieweg, 1798; Frölich, 1799-1800). Bonstettiana : Bonstettiana. Historisch-kritische Ausgabe der Briefkorrespondenzen Karl Viktor von Bonstettens und seines Kreises, 1753-1832 , ed. Doris and Peter Walser-Wilhelm, 14 vols in 27 (Berne: Peter Lang, 1996-2011). Briefe : Briefe von und an August Wilhelm Schlegel , ed. Josef Körner, 2 vols (Zurich, Leipzig, Vienna: Amalthea, 1930). Carnets de voyage : Simone Balayé (ed.), Les carnets de voyage de Madame de Staël. Contribution à la genèse de ses oeuvres (Geneva: Droz, 1971). Caroline : Caroline. Briefe aus der Frühromantik . Nach Georg Waitz vermehrt hg. von Erich Schmidt, 2 vols (Leipzig: Insel, 1913). Correspondance générale : Madame de Staël, Correspondance générale , ed. Béatrice W. Jasinski and Othenin d’Haussonville, 7 vols (Paris: Pauvert; Hachette; Klincksieck, 1962-; Geneva: Champion-Slatkine, 1962-2008). Die Horen: Die Horen eine Monatsschrift herausgegeben von Schiller (Tübingen: Cotta, 1795-97 ). Jenisch: August Wilhelm Schlegels Briefwechsel mit seinen Heidelberger Verlegern , ed. Erich Jenisch (Heidelberg: Winter, 1922). Journaux intimes : Benjamin Constant, Journaux intimes , ed. Alfred Roulin and Charles Roth (Paris: Gallimard, 1952). Justi: Carl Justi, Winckelmann und seine Zeitgenossen , 3rd edn, 3 vols (Leipzig: Vogel, 1923). KA: Kritische Friedrich-Schlegel-Ausgabe , ed. Ernst Behler et al ., 30 vols (Paderborn, Munich, Vienna: Schöningh; Zurich: Thomas, 1958- in progress). xiv The Life of August Wilhelm Schlegel KAV: August Wilhelm Schlegel, Kritische Ausgabe der Vorlesungen (Paderborn, etc.: Schöningh, 1989- in progress): I: Vorlesungen über Ästhetik I (1798-1803), ed. Ernst Behler (1989); II, i: Vorlesungen über Ästhetik (1803-27), ed. Ernst Behler, then Georg Braungart (2007); III: Vorlesungen über Encyklopädie (1803), ed. Frank Jolles and Edith Höltenschmidt (2006). Krisenjahre : Krisenjahre der Frühromantik. Briefe aus dem Schlegelkreis , ed. Josef Körner, 3 vols (Brno, Vienna, Leipzig: Rohrer, 1936-37; Berne: Francke, 1958). Leitzmann: Briefwechsel zwischen Wilhelm von Humboldt und August Wilhelm Schlegel , ed. Albert Leitzman (Halle: Niemeyer, 1908). Lohner: Ludwig Tieck und die Brüder Schlegel. Briefe. Auf der Grundlage der von Henry Lüdeke besorgten Edition neu herausgegeben und kommentiert von Edgar Lohner (Munich: Winkler, 1972). Mix-Strobel: York-Gothart Mix and Jochen Strobel (eds.), Der Europäer August Wilhelm Schlegel. Romantischer Kulturtransfer—romantische Wissenswelten , Quellen und Forschungen 62 (296) (Berlin, New York: de Gruyter, 2010). Oeuvres: Oeuvres de M. Auguste-Guillaume de Schlegel écrites en français , ed. Édouard Böcking, 3 vols (Leipzig: Weidmann, 1846). Opuscula: Opuscula quae Augustus Guilelmus Schlegelius Latine scripta reliquit, ed. Eduardus Böcking (Lipsiae: Weidmann, 1848). Pange: Comtesse Jean de Pange, née Broglie, Auguste-Guillaume Schlegel et Madame de Staël. D’après des documents inédits , doctoral thesis University of Paris (Paris: Albert, 1938). Sulger-Gebing: Emil Sulger-Gebing, Die Brüder A. W. und F. Schlegel in ihrem Verhältnisse zur bildenden Kunst , Forschungen zur neueren Litteraturgeschichte, 3 (Munich: Haushalter, 1897). SW : August Wilhelm Schlegel, Sämmtliche Werke , ed. Eduard Böcking, 12 vols (Leipzig: Weidmann, 1846-47). Walzel : Friedrich Schlegels Briefe an seinen Bruder August Wilhelm , ed. Oskar F. Walzel (Berlin: Speyer & Peters, 1890). Wieneke: August Wilhelm und Friedrich Schlegel im Briefwechsel mit Schiller und Goethe , ed. Josef Körner and Ernst Wieneke (Leipzig: Insel, 1926). Introduction The idea for this biography arose out of a specific situation, the first conference ever devoted to August Wilhelm Schlegel, in Dresden in 2008. 1 The relatively late date might suggest decades of neglect of Schlegel’s life and works, an indifference or nescience in the academy and in general cultural consciousness. Despite a corpus of studies extending back well over a century, it is indeed true to say that August Wilhelm Schlegel, unlike his brother Friedrich, has not been in the forefront of German critical awareness and is in great need of a general reappraisal. My own task at the conference was to set out some thoughts on how one approaches writing Schlegel’s life. 2 I ended with the question: Who is to do it? My colleagues agreed that I should. This biography is the result. There has never been a full-scale biography of Schlegel in any language. (The language factor is not irrelevant, for Schlegel wrote in French as well as German and lived for thirteen years in a French-speaking environment.) The first attempt in German so far, Bernhard von Brentano’s short biography (originally 1943) was a popular account that restricted itself to printed sources, 3 many of them available since the nineteenth century. There is also an enormous amount of information tucked away in the many editions 1 The proceedings of the conference were published by York-Gothart Mix and Jochen Strobel (eds), Der Europäer August Wilhelm Schlegel. Romantischer Kulturtransfer— romantische Wissenswelten , Quellen und Forschungen 62 (296) (Berlin, New York: de Gruyter, 2010), esp. 1-10. 2 Roger Paulin, ‘August Wilhelm Schlegel: Die Struktur seines Lebens’, ibid ., 309-318. 3 Bernhard von Brentano, August Wilhelm Schlegel. Geschichte eines romantischen Gei stes (Stuttgart: Cotta, 1943) and subsequently reprinted. See Konrad Feilchenfeldt, ‘Bernhard von Brentanos August Wilhelm Schlegel-Biographie’, Mix/Strobel, 295-307. An American master’s thesis covers essentially the same material as Brentano (i.e. no unpublished sources). Effi Irmingard Kosin, ‘Vorstudie zu einer Biographie von August Wilhelm Schlegel’, M.A. thesis Stanford University 1965. © Roger Paulin, CC BY http://dx.doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0069.07 2 The Life of August Wilhelm Schlegel of his correspondence and lectures, as well as in major monographs on individual aspects of his life and works—Körner on the Vienna Lectures, 4 Pange on Madame de Staël, 5 Nagavajara on his reputation in France, 6 Höltenschmidt on his medieval studies 7 are but a few—that open up a wealth of intellectual and historical detail relevant to his life. Yet there is no account that joins up these spheres of activity as one narrative whole. Perhaps the length of Schlegel’s life (1767-1845) and the breadth of his interests, far from being a stimulus, have deterred potential biographers. It may seem on the face of it hard to define what makes him biography- worthy: there are simply so many sides to his intellectual interests and too many loose ends to his life. ‘I have to admit to myself that I have undertaken a great deal and completed very little’, 8 says the man whose works in German take up twelve volumes in the standard edition. But proudly listing his achievements, he nevertheless is justified in calling himself a ‘cosmopolitan of art and poetry’. 9 For he is at once poet, dramatist, critic, translator, editor, philosopher, historian, philologist, an ‘érudit’ in the eighteenth century’s sense of the word; and is it symptomatic that a French name seems best suited to sum up his character and achievement. Being a cosmopolitan meant publishing in German, French and Latin; 10 his ideal biographer—and I certainly do not claim to fulfil that role—as well as being versed in the classical and Romance languages, should also know Sanskrit. Might a man with such an extraordinary mind and range not spend his hours closeted with books and papers and have no real life to speak of? There are times when Schlegel seems to fit this description. Not, however, when he is visiting the capitals of Europe or rattling in a chaise across 4 Josef Körner, Die Botschaft der deutschen Romantik an Europa , Schriften zur deutschen Literatur für die Görresgesellschaft, 9 (Augsburg: Filser, 1929). 5 Comtesse Jean de Pange, née Broglie, Auguste-Guillaume Schlegel et Madame de Staël. D’après des documents inédits , doctoral thesis University of Paris (Paris: Albert, 1938). 6 Chetana Nagavajara, August Wilhelm Schlegel in Frankreich. Sein Anteil an der französischen Literaturkritik 1807-1835 , intr. Kurt Wais, Forschungsprobleme der vergleichenden Literaturgeschichte, 3 (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1966). 7 Edith Höltenschmidt, Die Mittelalter-Rezeption der Brüder Schlegel (Paderborn, etc.: Schöningh, 2000). 8 ‘Je dois m’avouer à moi-même que j’ai beaucoup entrepris, et achevé peu de chose’. Oeuvres de M. Auguste-Guillaume de Schlegel écrites en français , ed. Édouard Böcking, 3 vols (Leipzig: Weidmann, 1846), I, 10. 9 ‘Kosmopolit der Kunst und Poesie/Verkündigt’ ich in allen Formen sie’. August Wilhelm Schlegel, Sämmtliche Werke [ SW ], ed. Eduard Böcking, 12 vols (Leipzig: Weidmann, 1846-47), III, 3. 10 Opuscula quae Augustus Guilelmus Schlegelius Latine scripta reliquit , ed. Eduardus Böcking (Lipsiae: Weidmann, 1848). 3 Introduction the steppes with Madame de Staël (and her lover), having saved a copy of De l’Allemagne from Napoleon’s censors, or when he joins Marshal Bernadotte’s suite as a political pamphleteer. These are of course high moments, but the circumstances that brought about the works for which he is chiefly remembered today—his translation of Shakespeare, and the Vienna Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature that were read from ‘Cadiz to Edinburgh, Stockholm and St Petersburg’ 11—are also the stuff of biography. The main problem has nevertheless been his reputation in his own country. Despite a renewal of interest in him during the twentieth century and impressive editions of his lectures and correspondence—the initiatives of Josef Körner or Ernst Behler, to mention but two—Schlegel has generally not been well served by his fellow-countrymen. In the German lands, his reputation has never quite recovered from Heinrich Heine’s devastating attack in Die Romantische Schule of 1835; memoirs in the later nineteenth century did him hardly better service. He failed to be enshrined in the national canon, being perceived as having sold his soul to France, the ‘traditional enemy’. In the strident years after 1871, he became a symbol of effeteness, lacking ‘vital forces’; even Brentano’s biography, when speaking of his Shakespeare translation, can only find a ‘feminine capacity for empathy’, not life-giving originality. 12 Writing a biography to counter prejudice and neglect is doubtless laudable, but it is not enough. Schlegel himself knew this. In the sole biographical essay from his own pen, a defence of his former mentor Gottfried August Bürger, he wrote that ‘it is a forlorn hope to impute to a human work a higher reputation than it deserves, through keeping silent about its faults’. 13 It is a warning against the temptation to compensate for perceived injustices. Schlegel nevertheless believed in preserving a self-image and was ever ready to justify himself. He wrote a total of four autobiographical pieces (two in German, one in French and one in Latin), setting out his credentials, respectively, as a poet, 14 as a man of action and political conscience (not merely a sedentary man of letters), 15 and a man 11 SW , VII, 285. 12 Sources set out in Paulin, ‘Struktur’, 312f. 13 August Wilhelm Schlegel, ‘Bürger. 1800’, SW , VIII, 64-139, ref. 73. 14 [Sketch of a Biography]. (undated). Cornelia Bögel, ‘Fragment einer unbekannten autobiographischen Skizze aus dem Nachlass August Wilhelm Schlegels’, Athenäum , 22 (2012), 165-180. 15 ‘Oratio cum magistratum academicum die XVIII. Octobris anni MDCCCXXIV. deponeret habita’, Opuscula , 385-392; ‘Berichtigung einiger Mißdeutungen’, SW , VIII, 239-258. 4 The Life of August Wilhelm Schlegel of mature reflection. 16 The modern biographer will not wish to follow implicitly these directives from his biographical subject, but by the same token he will not wish to brush them aside as irrelevant. The biographer also has the task of seeing his subject in his times. Politically, Schlegel was born in a part of that conglomeration of German states still owing allegiance to a Holy Roman Emperor (he still had the last Emperor’s name on his doctoral diploma from the University of Jena). Growing up in the Hanover of George III, he experienced the last years of this political system, before the French Revolution, the Revolutionary Wars, and the rise of Napoleon destroyed the old order and imposed a new one on Europe. The circumstances of his thirteen-year association with Madame de Staël saw him in the opposite camp to Napoleon, forced with her into exile and a wandering existence. His travels with her took him to France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Russia, Sweden and England, all during times of political or military turmoil. The reaction in the German lands after the Restoration of 1815 left him culturally and intellectually oriented to France, despite his being a professor in Prussian service. A life that extended from the reigns of Frederick the Great, George III and Louis XV in the 1760s to those of Frederick William IV, Victoria and Louis-Philippe in the 1840s involved not just political change and upheaval, but irreversible social and technological revolutions. Much of this was to occupy his two best-known pupils at the University of Bonn, Karl Marx and Heinrich Heine. (Not to be outdone, Schlegel himself wrote an ode in Latin marking the arrival of the first steamboat on the Rhine; in the year before he died, the railway reached Bonn.) He did not see all of this necessarily as progress. Towards the end of his life listing (in no particular order) the ‘achievements’ of the last half-century, he was wryly ambiguous as to their benefits: beet sugar, the free press, gas lighting, centralization, steam engines, lithography, daguerrotypes, metres and hectares, stearin candles, the rights of man, Chartism, socialism, and much else besides. 17 He could have added: the July Revolution, the British Empire, the Carlsbad Decrees, the subject of trenchant comment elsewhere. The role of the intellectual, the scholar, the writer was, as he saw it, to preserve some integrity and self- esteem when everything else about him was restless and shifting. Yet these factors alone do not necessarily warrant a biography. I believe Schlegel to have been an interesting man in his own right and a 16 ‘Fragments extraits du porte-feuille d’un solitaire contemplatif’, Oeuvres , I, 189-194. 17 ‘Formule d’abjuration’, Oeuvres , I, 83. 5 Introduction leading intellectual in his day—not always likeable, but few of his great contemporaries, Goethe or Schiller, Madame de Staël or Heine, would necessarily qualify in those terms. I seek to strip away the accumulation of prejudices that have accompanied his reputation and present him, not as he was (that no biographer can do) but as he might reasonably be seen, with all of his faults and also his virtues. To this end, I make extensive use of a mass of archival material, much of which presents a Schlegel different from the image in printed sources. This biography identifies the high points of Schlegel’s life, the major influences on it, the places and persons affected by his presence and personality. These are, as I see it, the years in Jena, his Shakespeare translation, the Berlin and Vienna Lectures, and the years as a professor in Bonn. I have devoted over a quarter of my account to his association with Madame de Staël (1804-17), not least because that extraordinary woman said that she could not live without him, but also because Staël studies tend to sideline him in favour of other members of the ‘Groupe de Coppet’. Thus I have drawn on the material afforded by recent Staël scholarship in order to place Schlegel more centrally in the account of her life and works. I regard his Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature as commensurate with Staël’s De l’Allemagne , part of the recognition of Schlegel’s pivotal role as a representative figure of both German and European Romanticism, sometimes even as the man who held everything together when politics forced so much apart. An equally long section is devoted to his years as a professor in Bonn, for here Schlegel achieved prominence—fame even—as a Sanskrit scholar, and it is a claim to eminence that in its time could compete with his renown as a translator and as the voice of Romanticism. I see Schlegel as a professional writer for a large part of his career. His publications did not exist in a vacuum. His dealings with publishers, the sums that they paid, the position of the author in the book trade, the vicissitudes of publishing in Napoleonic Germany and also later: all these are concerns of special interest to the biographer. Heinrich Heine grievously wronged Schlegel, and the victim has had very little opportunity for redress. I come to his defence against his calumniator-in-chief, endeavouring also to find some sympathy for the man, who without children of his own, showed genuine affection for the young and devoted much time and care to them. He was not only the travelling companion to Madame de Staël but also the tutor to her three children, all of whom have their part in this narrative.