Alternative Pathways to Sustainable Development: Lessons from Latin America International Development Policy Editor-in-Chief Gilles Carbonnier (Professor of Development Economics, The Graduate Institute, Geneva) Guest Editors Humberto Campodónico (Principal Researcher, Centro de Estudios y Promoción del Desarrollo (desco)) Sergio Tezanos Vázquez (Associate Professor, Universidad de Cantabria) VOLUME 9 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/idp Editorial Board Marc Bacchetta (Counsellor, Economic Research and Statistics Division, wto) Jean-François Bayart (Director of Research, Centre of Research and International Studies (ceri), Sciences Po, Paris, France) Carlos Casas Tragodara (Director of Center for Studies in Mining and Sustainability, Lima, Peru) Francis Cheneval (Professor of Political Philosophy, University of Zurich, Switzerland) Suren Erkman (Director, Institute of Land Use Policies and Human Environment, University of Lausanne, Switzerland) Marcela Eslava (Associate Professor, Universidad de los Andes, Colombia) Till Förster (Professor of Social Anthropology, Institute of Social Anthropology, University of Basel, Switzerland) Ricardo Fuentes-Nieva (Chief Executive Officer, Oxfam Mexico) Inge Kaul (Adjunct Professor, Hertie School of Governance, Berlin, Germany) Xiaoyun Li (Dean of the College of Humanities and Development Studies, China Agricultural University, and Chief Senior Advisor, International Poverty Reduction Center, China) Pamela Martin (Professor in Political Science and Geography, Coastal Carolina University, usa) Katharina Michaelowa (Professor of Political Economy and Development, Institute of Political Science, University of Zurich; Director, Center for Comparative and International Studies, Zurich, Switzerland) Hassan Mshinda (Director, Tanzanian Commission for Science and Technology (costech)) Patrick Osakwe (Head, Trade and Poverty Branch Division for Africa, ldcs and Special Programmes, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (unctad)) Ugo Panizza (Professor of Economics, The Graduate Institute, Geneva, Switzerland) Dennis Rodgers (Professor of International Development Studies, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands) Jorge Alberto Restrepo Torres (Associate Professor, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogota, Colombia) Elizabeth Sidiropoulos (Chief Executive, South African Institute of International Affairs (saia), South Africa) Mahaman Tidjani Alou (Dean of the Faculty of Economics and Law and Professor, Abdou Moumouni University, Niamey, Niger) James Zhan (Director, Division of Investment and Enterprise, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (unctad)) Editor-in-Chief Gilles Carbonnier Deputy Editor-in-Chief Christophe Gironde Managing Editor Frances Rice Research and Communication Officer Emmanuelle Dalle Mulle / Nurgul Tilenbaeva / Claudie Fioroni / Maren Schulte Senior Researcher Lee Mizell Figure Layout y-b design, www.ybdigital.com Copy and Technical Editing Dave Brooks, Marie Thorndahl Translation Kathleen Gallagher, Andrew Brown Cover Photo Street Scene, La Paz, Bolivia (Gilles Carbonnier (2016)) Visit International Development Policy and associated documents online http://devpol.org International Development Policy Previous Titles Africa: 50 Years of Independence , No. 1, Geneva: Graduate Institute Publications, 2010, issn print 1663-9383 | issn online 1663-9405 | ean 9782940415274. Energy and Development , No. 2, Basingstoke/Geneva: Palgrave Macmillan/Graduate Institute Publications, 2011, ean 9780230282483. Aid , Emerging Economies and Global Policies , No. 3, Basingstoke/Geneva: Palgrave Macmillan/Graduate Institute Publications, 2012, ean 9781137003409. Religion and Development , No. 4, Basingstoke/Geneva: Palgrave Macmillan/Graduate Institute Publications, 2013, ean 9781137329370. Education, Learning, Training: Critical Issues for Development , No. 5, Leiden|Boston/Geneva: Brill Nijhoff/Graduate Institute Publications, 2014, ean 9789004281141. Large-Scale Land Acquisitions, F ocus on South-East Asia, No. 6, Leiden|Boston/Geneva: Brill Nijhoff/Graduate Institute Publications 2015, ean 9789004304741. Combining Economic and Political Development, The Experience of mena, No. 7 Leiden|Boston/Geneva: Brill Nijhoff/Graduate Institute Publications 2017, ean 9789004336452. Development as a Battlefield , No. 8 Leiden|Boston/Geneva: Brill Nijhoff/Graduate Institute Publications 2017, ean 9789004349520. THE GRADUATE INSTITUTE | GENEVA Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies Institut de hautes études internationales et du développement Research Office/Publications p.o. Box 1672 ch–1211 Geneva 1 Switzerland publications@graduateinstitute.ch http://www.graduateinstitute.ch/home/research/publications.html Alternative Pathways to Sustainable Development: Lessons from Latin America Edited by Gilles Carbonnier Humberto Campodónico Sergio Tezanos Vázquez LEIDEN | BOSTON This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the cc-by-nc License, which permits any non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. Cover illustration: Street Scene, La Paz, Bolivia (Gilles Carbonnier (2016)) The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available online at http://catalog.loc.gov lc record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2017032454 Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface. issn 1663-9383 isbn 978-90-04-35166-0 (paperback) isbn 978-90-04-35167-7 (e-book) Copyright 2017 by the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies. Koninklijke Brill nv incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi and Hotei Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill nv provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, ma 01923, usa. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner. Contents Foreword ix Preface xi List of Illustrations xii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xv Notes on Contributors xviii part 1 Development Alternatives in Latin America 1 Alternative Development Narratives, Policies and Outcomes in the Andean Region 3 Humberto Campodónico, Gilles Carbonnier and Sergio Tezanos Vázquez 2 The Future of Latin America in the Global Economy: An Interview with Fernando Henrique Cardoso 16 Fernando Henrique Cardoso and Humberto Campodónico 3 Deconstruction and Genealogy of Latin American Good Living ( Buen Vivir ). The (Triune) Good Living and Its Diverse Intellectual Wellsprings 23 Antonio Luis Hidalgo-Capitán and Ana Patricia Cubillo-Guevara 4 Commodity-led Development in Latin America 51 José Antonio Ocampo 5 Post-extractivism: From Discourse to Practice—Reflections for Action 77 Alberto Acosta part 2 Development Outcomes and External Influences 6 Socialism in the Twenty-First Century and Neo-liberalism: Diverse Ideological Options Do Not Always Generate Different Effects 105 Fernando Eguren Contents viii 7 Implementing ‘ Vivir Bien ’: Results and Lessons from the Biocultura Programme, Bolivia 128 Frédérique Weyer 8 Poverty and Economic Inequalities in Peru during the Boom in Growth: 2004–14 138 Javier Herrera 9 Skirting or Courting Controversy? Chinese fdi in Latin American Extractive Industries 174 Adriana Erthal Abdenur 10 The Influence of Multilateral Development Institutions on Latin American Development Strategies 199 Guillermo Perry and Eduardo Garcia part 3 Social and Environmental Dynamics 11 Towards Regimes for Sustainable Mineral Resource Management— Constitutional Reform, Law and Judicial Decisions in Latin America 235 Ana Elizabeth Bastida and Luis Bustos 12 Territories in Dispute: Tensions between ‘Extractivism’, Ethnic Rights, Local Governments and the Environment in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru 269 Darío Indalecio Restrepo Botero and Camilo Andrés Peña Galeano 13 The Rise of Citizen Security in Latin America and the Caribbean 291 Robert Muggah 14 The Evolving Role and Influence and Growing Strength of Social Movements in Latin America and the Caribbean 323 Ricardo Fuentes-Nieva and Gianandrea Nelli Feroci Index 339 Foreword Together with Humberto Campodónico and Sergio Tezanos Vázquez, I am pleased to introduce this 9th thematic issue of International Development Policy . As editors, we took as a starting point the idea that the diverse develop- ment experiences in Latin America and the Caribbean (lac) during the latest commodity price super-cycle offer important insights regarding competing de- velopment narratives and strategies, and how the latter translate into policies and practices. This issue brings together some twenty authors, the majority of whom origi- nate from the lac region. Collectively, their contributions examine the lessons that can be drawn from various experiments related to alternative develop- ment models spearheaded in the lac region at the level of ideas, discours- es and policies. Drawing on economics, anthropology, law, political science and sociology, the authors bring a rich diversity of perspectives. While most of them come from academia, this issue includes contributions from policy makers, political figures and development practitioners. Articles in this issue were the subject of lively exchanges during an authors’ workshop held in Geneva in January 2016. This led to a first round of revisions before submitting the collection of articles to an anonymous reviewer who commented on the volume as a whole as well as on individual chapters, lead- ing to a second round of revisions. The guest editors wish to thank the reviewer for substantive comments as well as Theotonio dos Santos, Peter Larsen, Isa- belle Schulte-Tenckhoff, Achim Wennmann, and Anida Yupari for critical in- puts during the authors’ workshop. The contributions to this thematic issue are organised in three parts. Fol- lowing an introduction by the guest editors and a scene-setting interview with Fernando Henrique Cardoso, chapters in Part 1 trace the origins, development and influences of alternative development strategies in Latin America. This is followed by chapters addressing different policy experiments and actual devel- opment outcomes, with a look at the role of multilateral development banks and China in the region. The last part examines legal and regulatory develop- ments in relation to social dynamics with a focus on the Andean region, indig- enous rights and the role of civil society organisations. Taken together, the articles in this issue of International Development Policy challenge readers to reconsider the relationship between varied development narratives and ideologies anchored in different knowledge ecologies, the x Foreword ensuing development policies and practices and their sustainability. Looking at outcomes may lead one to downplay the actual impact of narratives and discourses. Yet, the jury might still be out. The Editors, Geneva, Lima and Santander, April 2017 Preface International Development Policy is a critical source of analysis of development policy and international cooperation trends and is aimed at scholars, policy makers and development professionals. It offers a diverse range of academic views from both industrialised countries and emerging economies. International Development Policy is edited by the Graduate Institute of In- ternational and Development Studies, an institution of research and higher education dedicated to advancing world affairs. Located in Geneva at the heart of an international centre of multilateral governance, the Graduate Institute benefits from a rich legacy linked to the founding of the international system and the League of Nations in the 1920s, and the emergence of the developing world in the 1960s. http://graduateinstitute.ch/publications http://devpol.org We extend our thanks to the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (sdc) for its financial support. List of Illustrations Figures 3.1 The Trinity of Latin American Good Living 25 3.2 The Intellectual Wellsprings of Latin American Good Living 31 4.1 Natural resource and technological contents of Latin American exports 55 4.2 Latin American natural resource exports by destination, 2013 56 4.3 Long-term trends and super-cycles of commodity prices 60 4.4 Real non-oil commodity price (1980 = 100) 62 4.5 Terms of trade gains and losses during the 2003–13 commodity boom 63 4.6 Macroeconomic cycles during the past quarter century 67 4.7 Correlation between gdp growth and improvements in the terms of trade, 2003–2013 72 4.8 Share of manufacturing in gdp, 1950–2013 72 6.1 Evolution of rural poverty in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (in percentage, 2002–14) 122 7.1 Municipalities of intervention, Biocultura programme (pnb) 133 8.1 Evolution of poverty (usd 4 purchasing power parity, 2005), 2003–13 142 8.2 Evolution of income inequality (Gini), 2003–13 143 8.3 Evolution of income polarisation, (2003–13) 144 8.4 Poverty incidence, poverty gap and poverty severity (Peru) 145 8.5 Evolution of gdp and the poverty rate, 2005–15 146 8.6 Decomposition of annual variations in poverty (in percentage) 147 8.7 Changes in expenditure levels due to inflation by deciles, (2004–15) 149 8.8 Direct effect of inflation on poverty reduction 150 8.9 Poverty transitions, 1999–2014 151 8.10 Relative importance of public transfers by deciles, 2004–15 153 8.11 Direct impact of public transfers on the incidence of poverty 154 8.12 Per cent of total expenditure of non-poor households needed to eliminate the poverty gap 155 8.13 Evolution of the inequality of household income and expenditure, 2004–15 156 8.14 Distribution of expenditure by quintiles, 2004 and 2015 156 8.15 Inequality and polarisation: a graphical representation 157 8.16 Evolution of the polarisation of income and household expenditure 158 8.17 Decomposition of the variations in poverty and inequality between 2004 and 2015, according to household income components 159 xiii List of Illustrations 8.18 Perception of distributive justice and the inequality index, 2013 161 8.19 Evolution of the perception of distributive justice, 1997–2015 (Peru) 162 8.20 Effects of fiscal policy and social expenditure on health and education on income inequality (Gini coefficient) around 2011 (Latin America 17 countries, OECD-25 countries, European Union-15 countries) 165 8.21 Reduction in the Gini coefficient according to fiscal policy instruments (in percentage points) 166 8. A.1 Growth and redistribution decomposition of poverty change 168 8.A.2 Gini coefficient of income and its confidence intervals (at 95%), 2004–15 (Peru) 169 8.A.3 Evolution of poverty (national poverty lines), 2003–15 169 10.1 Gross flows from mdis to LAC7 as percentage of gdp and total capital inflows (1980–2015) 202 10.2 Gross Capital flows (global and to LAC7) 1970–2015 203 10.3 Latin America and Caribbean (lac) Gross domestic product (gdp) and Capital Flows Annual Growth (1970–2015) 203 10.4 imf disbursements and number of countries with active programmes 204 10.5 Total mdbs disbursements by country 205 10.6 External public and publicly guaranteed debt stocks (percentage of gdp) 205 10.7 MDI lending to private sector 206 10.8 LAC7 embis 2000–16 221 10.9 International reserves/percentage gdp, 2000–15 222 10.10 Real exchange rates—2000–15 224 10.11 Growth rates by country 224 10.12 Net barter terms of trade index 225 10.13 Governance indicators 226 12.1 Exports from energetic mining extractivism as a percentage of gdp, 1990–2014 270 12.2 Main extractivist agricultural exports as a percentage of agriculture produc- tion, 1990–2014 271 12.3 Exports of mining products and energy as a percentage of total exports, 1990–2014 275 12.4 Multi-dimensional poverty. Selected countries in terms of the percentage of the total population—2005 and 2012 282 12.5 Protected land and ocean areas as a percentage of total territory 284 12.6 Territory covered by forests as a percentage of national territory, 1990–2010 285 13.1 A typology of citizen security threats and interventions 306 xiv List of Illustrations Tables 4.1 Natural resource dependence of Latin American exports 57 4.2 Fiscal dependence on natural resource revenues (% of total government revenues) 69 4.3 gdp growth (in percentage), Latin America and its sub-regions 71 6.1 Indigenous populations in four Andean countries 117 6.2 Prevalence (in percentage) of chronic and global malnutrition in children under the age of five 123 6.3 Reduction in chronic malnutrition (in percentage) 123 8.1 Growth and redistribution components of poverty changes 148 8.2 Chronic and transitory poverty, 2007–11 152 8.3 Preferences in the region for more income equality (in percentage) 163 8.4 Perception of wealth as fixed or expandable (in percentage) 164 8.5 The market versus state intervention (in percentage) 164 8.A.1 Decomposition of poverty and inequality indicators according to income source (relative contribution) 170 9.1 Chinese loans to Latin America (up to December 2015) 176 12.1 Decentralised entities’ shares of state resources issuing from the mining and energy sectors 278 12.2 Exports from the national energy base as a percentage of total energy production 286 13.1 Homicide rates (per 100,000) in selected cities (2016 or latest year) 299 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations alba Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America alecd Latin American Alliance of Critical Studies on Development anla National Agency for Environmental Licenses (Colombia) anm National Mining Authority (Colombia) apec Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation bancoldex Banco de Comercio Exterior de Colombia (Bank of Foreign Trade of Colombia) bndes Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Brazilian Development Bank) cada Andean Center for Agricultural Development in (Bolivia) caf Corporación Andina de Formento (Development Bank of Latin America) caoi Andean Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations ccsi Columbia Centre on Sustainable Investment cdb China Development Bank celac Comunidad de Estados Latinamericanos y Caribeños (Community of Latin American and Caribbean States) cidob Confederación de Pueblos Indígenas de Bolivia (Confederation of Indigenous Peoples of Bolivia) clacso Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales (Latin American Council of Social Sciences) claes Centro Latinoamericano de Ecologia Social (Latin American Center for Social Ecology) cncp China National Petroleum Corporation cnooc China National Offshore Oil Corporation codelco Corporación Nacional del Cobre de Chile (Chilean state owned cop- per mining company) cofides Corporación Financiera de Desarrollo (Development Finance Cor- poration s.a.) comibol Corporación Minera de Bolivia (Bolivian Mining Corporation) conaie Confederación de Nacionalidades Indígenas del Ecuador (Confed- eration of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador) conaip Confederación de Nacionalidades Indígenas del Perú (Confedera- tion of Indigenous Nationalities of Peru) conamaq Consejo Nacional de Ayllus y Markas del Qullasuyu (Guarani Indi- ans and the National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuya) xvi List of Acronyms and Abbreviations condesan Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregión Andina (Consortium for Sustainable Development of the Andean Moor- lands, Peru) corfo Corporación de Fomento de la Producción de Chile (Production De- velopment Corporation of Chile) crcc China Railway Construction Corporation eclac Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean eia environmental impact assessments fdi Foreign Direct Investment fdn Financiera de Desarrollo Nacional (National Finance Development) fenocin Confederación Nacional de Organisaciones Campesinas, Indígenas y Negras (National Confederation of Peasant, Indigenous and Black Organizations) filac Fund for the Development of Indigenous Peoples of Latin America and the Caribbean (Fondo Indígena) flar Fondo Latinoamericano de Reservas (Latin American Reserve Fund) fta Free Trade Agreement gasene Southeast Northeast Interconnection Gas Pipeline (Brazil) iaen Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales (Institute of National Higher Education, Ecuador) icsid International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes idb Inter-American Development Bank idh Impuesto Directo a los Hidrocaburos (Direct Tax on Hydrocarbons) ifc International Finance Corporation ildis Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales (Latin Ameri- can Institute of Social Research, Ecuador) ilo International Labour Organization imf International Monetary Fund incoder Instituto Colombiano de Desarrollo Rural (Colombian Institute for Rural Development) isi import substitution industrialisation lac Latin America and the Caribbean LAC7 Seven largest Latin American Countries (including Argentina, Bra- zil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Peru and Venezuela) lng liquefied natural gas mas Movimiento Al Socialismo (Movement Toward Socialism, Bolivia) mdb Multilateral Development Bank mdgs Millennium Development Goals mdis Multilateral Development Institutions mercosur Mercado Común del Sur (Southern Common Market) xvii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations mip Mechanisms for Moorlands Information mpd Ministerio de Planificación del Desarrollo (Ministry of Development Planning, Bolivia) nafin Nacional Financiera (Development Banking Institution owned by Mexican government) nafta North American Free Trade Agreement nics newly industrialised countries ocad Collegiate Bodies of Administration and Decision Making oecd Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development oefa Organismo de Evaluación y Fiscalización Ambiental (Agency for En- vironmental Assessment and Enforcement, Peru) opec Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries opip La Organización de los Pueblos Indígenas del Pastaza (Organisation of Indigenous Peoples of Pastaza, Ecuador) pdvsa Petróleos de Venezuela sa (Venezuela’s national oil company) pnb Biocultura programme, Bolivia (Programa Nacional Biocultura) ppa Andean Moorlands Projects ppp Purchasing power parity pratec Andean Project of Peasant Technologies (Peru) sdc Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation sdgs Sustainable Development Goals sdsn un Sustainable Development Solutions Network senplades Secretaría Nacional de Planificación del Desarrollo (National Secre- tariat of Planning and Development, Ecuador) soes state-owned enterprises tipnis Territorio Indígena y Parque Nacional Isiboro Sécure (Indigenous Territory and Isiboro Sécure National Park) unced United Nations Conference on Environment and Development undp United Nations Development Programme wisco Wuhan Iron and Steel Company Notes on Contributors Adriana Erthal Abdenur is a Postdoctoral Fellow, fgv—Fundação Getulio Vargas (Brazil). Her research focuses on the role of rising powers, including the brics, in development cooperation and international security. Her recent publications include jour- nal articles in Third World Quarterly, Africa Review, Journal of the Indian Ocean Region, and cidob Cahier d’Afers Internacionals Alberto Acosta is an Ecuadorian economist. He is a professor and former Minister of Energy and Mines, former president of the Constituent Assembly and Member of the Constituent Assembly, and a former candidate to the presidency of the Repub- lic of Ecuador. Ana Elizabeth Bastida is Senior Lecturer at the Centre for Energy, Petroleum and Mineral Law & Poli- cy at the School of Social Sciences of the University of Dundee (uk). Ana Eliza- beth Bastida specialises in law, policy and the governance of the environment and natural resources in the context of sustainable development. Luis Bustos is Associate Professor at the Universidad Externado de Colombia; along with an Attorney at Law from the Universidad Externado, Bustos holds an ll.m. in Mineral Law and Policy (Dundee, uk) and a Specialisation in Public Law, Po- litical Science and Sociology (Externado, Colombia). Currently, he is a doctoral candidate at the Universidad Panamericana de Mexico. Humberto Campodónico is a Principal Researcher at the Center for the Study and Promotion of Devel- opment (Centro de Estudios y Promoción del Desarrollo, desco), Lima (Peru) and has served as Dean and as Professor of the Faculty of Economics, Univer- sidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima. From 2011 to 2012, he served as the President of the National Oil Company, Petroperú. He is presently a member of the Advisory Council of the Natural Resources Governance Institute (nrgi) and a Fellow of the Rights and Resources Initiative (rri). He has published several books about mining, energy (oil, natural gas), international economics and trade. xix Notes on Contributors Gilles Carbonnier is Professor of Development Economics at the Graduate Institute, Geneva (Switzerland); Editor-in-Chief, International Development Policy ; and Presi- dent, Centre for Education and Research in Humanitarian Action. His research focuses on international development cooperation, as well as the governance of natural resources and illicit financial flows. His latest book is entitled Hu- manitarian Economics: War, Disaster and the Global Aid Market (London & New York: Hurst & Oxford University Press, 2016). Ana Patricia Cubillo-Guevara is a consultant on political, social and gender issues and a member of the research group Research Techniques and Economic Development of the Universidad de Huelva (Spain). Cubillo-Guevara holds a doctorate degree in sociology, a Master of Political Science in Ibero-America, a Master of Social Intervention with Women, a Master of Social Studies and Intervention Rela- tive to Migrations, Development and Vulnerable Groups, and a Licentiate in Political Sciences. Fernando Eguren is President of the Peruvian Center for Social Research (cepes), Lima (Peru), and Director of Debate Agrario ( Agriculture Debate ) and La Revista Agraria ( Agriculture Review ). He holds a Bachelor degree in Social Sciences from the University of Louvain, Belgium, and undertook graduate studies in Sociology at l’École Pratique des Hautes Études, Paris (France) and in Political Studies at the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima. Ricardo Fuentes-Nieva is an economist. He is currently the Executive Director of Oxfam Mexico and has been leading Oxfam ́s intellectual work on inequality for several years. He has also worked for undp, the World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank and Mexico’s Ministry of Social Development. Eduardo García is an economics PhD student at the University of Rochester (usa). He has also worked as a Research Assistant at Universidad de los Andes (Colombia) in top- ics related to taxation, institutional development and urban criminality. Javier Herrera is an economist. He is currently research director at the Development Research Institute (ird) (France) and visiting professor at the Catholic University of