HEURISTIC RESEARCH ' Dedicated to: John, Shannon, and Taryn Sacha and Misha Derek and Tyson and Brian from whom I have learned about nature, passion, and essence in first-person exclamations and portrayals of what life experience is and means. HEURISTIC RESEARCH Design, Methodology, and Applications CL ARK MOUSTAKAS S AGE PUBLICA T IONS The International Professional Publishers Newbury Park London New Delhi Copyright© 1990 by Sage Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information address: SAGE Publications, Inc. 2455 Teller Road Newbury Park, California 91320 E-mail: order@sagep ub .com SAGE Publications Ltd. 6 Bonhill Street London EC2A 4PU United Kingdom SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. M-32 Market Greater Kailash I New Delhi 110 048 lndia Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Moustakas, Clark E. Heur istic research : design, meth odology, and applications I by Clark Moustakas. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8039 - 3881-0. - ISBN 0-8039 -38 82-9 (pbk.) 1. Heuristic. 2. Probl em solving-Psychological aspects. I. Title. BD260.M 68 1990 001 .4'2 -dc20 90-34596 00 01 12 11 Sage Produ ction Editor: Diane S. Foster Contents Acknowledgments 7 1. Introductio n: Resources and Inspirations 9 2. Heuristic Co ncepts, P ro cesses, and Validation 15 Concepts and Processes of Heuristic Research 15 Identifying with the Focus of Inquiry 15 Self-Dialogue 16 Tacit Knuwin g 20 Intuition 23 Indwellin g 24 Focusing 25 The Internal Frame of Reference 26 The Phases of Heuristic Research 27 Initial Engagerrzent 27 lmrnersion 28 ln culxl tio n 28 1/l11mination 29 Explication 30 Creative Synthesis 31 The Validation of He11ristic Research 32 Closing Comments 37 3. Research Design and Methodology 38 Qualities of Heuristic Inquiry 38 Formulating the Question 40 Exploring and Answering the Question 43 M ethods of PrefX1ration 44 Methods of Collecting Data 46 Methods of Organizing nnd Synthesizing Data 49 Outline Guide of Procedures for Analysis of Data 51 Creating the Research Manuscript 53 Introduction and Statement of Topic and Question 53 Review of the Literat11re 53 Me thodol ogy 54 Presentation of Dain 54 Su1111nary, Implications, and Outcomes 54 Closing Comments 54 Appendix A: Instructions to Research Participants 57 Append ix B: Participation-Relea se Agreement 58 4. Examples of Heuristic Research 59 Excerpt from an Initial Interview 59 Really Feeling Connected with Nature 59 Individual Depicti ons 60 The Experience of Touch in Blindness 60 Transforrning Self-Doubt into Self-Confidence 61 The Depiction of Self-Doubt 62 Moven1ent to Self-Confidence 63 The Mother-Daughter Relationship 64 The Experienc e of Mystery in Everyday Life 67 Compo site Depictions 68 The Experience of Being Sensitive 68 Being Inspired 69 The Experience of Self-Recla1nation 70 The Menning of the Precognitiv e Dream Experience 72 Gro1vi11g Up in a Fatherless Ho1ne 73 Th e Experience of Shyness 74 Exemplary Por traits 76 Alicia-Return to Culture 76 Edward-Psychologically Androgynous Male 78 Lola-The Experience of Synchronicity BO Peter - Rejecting Love 81 Bob-lnteraction Rhythms 83 The Creative Synthesis 85 The Experience of Feeling U11co11ditionally Loved 85 Rejecting Lov e 87 The Androgynous Male 88 The Experience of Writing Poetry 89 Closing Comments 90 5. Applications of Heuristic Research 91 Loneliness-Unraveling Its Nature and Meaning 91 The Symbolic Growth Experience and Heuristic Research 99 Person-Centered Therapy and Heuristic Inquiry 103 Heuristic Methodology Applied to Psychotherapy 105 References 125 About the Author 130 Acknowledg ments Many people contribu ted to the de vel opment of Heuristic R es earch , first and for emost the doc toral stu dent s who studied with me at the Merrill-Palmer Institute and Saybrook Institute following publication of my loneliness stu di es beginning in 1961, and since 1980 at the Cent er for Hum anistic Studies and Union Institute. Although in this book I have directly utilized the work of only recent do ctoral gradu- ates, every year since 1961 I have made elaborations and refinem ent s in theory, concepts, processes, methods, and applications of heuristic research, often inspired by student questions and investigations. The examples and references that appear in Heuristic Re se ar ch represent applications of heuristic design and me thodology to resea rch and to psychotherapy. I ex pr ess my appreciation to the following persons for the borrowed excerpts from dissertations and unp ublis hed papers th at ha ve been incorpora ted in various sections of Heu r istic R esearch: Gay le Beck, Diane Blau, Valorie Cheyne, Jon Clar k, Rick Copen, Erik Craig, S tephanie H awka, Marion Ma cintyre, Louise Malef yte, Colleen McNally, Ron Marshall, Mena Potts, Claude Prefon tain e, Alfonso Rodriguez, Patricia Rourke, Dorothy Schultz, Robert Shaw, Joan Sny- der, Robert Snyder, J ohn Varani, and Lynn Vaughn. I also have derived clarifications of heuristic theory and methodology from my work with Bruce Dougla ss whom I acknowledge and thank. I recognize, too, the many theorists, resea rch investigators, and psychotherapists who contributed to my know led ge and under- s tanding of root and poetic meanings in heuristic discovery and who are often cited and quoted in this boo k. This group includes Carl Rogers, w ho se theories and conceptual pa pers have enc ouraged , su pported , and often guided my thinking; Abraham Ma s low , whose investigations of self-actualizing p eop le launched an entirely new reahn of scientific study of human experience; P au l Bridgman, who e mphasized personal and subjective knowledge as essential compo - nents of objectivity; Martin Buber and Sy dney Jourard , who pre sented important conceptual refinem ents of heuristics in co nc e pt s of I-Thou, mutuality, my stery, and self-disclosure; and Michael Polanyi, wh ose philosophy and scientific journeys gave heuristic ideology added 7 8 HEURISTIC RESEARCH significance in concepts of tacit dimension, indwelling, and intuition, as well as particular understanding of validity in qualitative investi- gations. Willard Frick contributed important understandings of the sym- bolic growth experience and its relationship to corrective and enhanc- ing functions of identity and selfhood. Michael Patton elucidated the nature and significance of qualitative methodology-conceptually and in practical applications. Eugene Gendlin developed focusing processes and methods that I have utilized both in research and in psychotherapy to identify and explicate central feelings and core meanings in significant human experiences. Richard van Dusen, Maureen O'Hara, Phillip Barrineau, and Jerold Bozarth contributed to my knowledge of the important ties in theory, value, and method- ology between person-centered therapy, the internal frame of refer- ence, and heuristic inquiry. I also thank the individuals who reviewed and assessed the manu- script and offered suggestions for elaboration, clarification, and illus- tration that were utilized in finalizing Heuristic Research. This group includes Mike Arons, Eric Craig, Willard Frick, Kevin MacNeil, and Michael Patton. The inspiration, and in many ways provocation, for developing Heuristic Research came from Michael Patton. Deepening of philosophic thought and distinctions between phenomenology and heuristics were provided by Mike Arons. Erik Craig was helpful in his detailed work on the manuscript and in his concrete suggestions for enhancing its organization and clarity. From the beginning of my studies of the individual, the writings of Soren Kierkegaard, Edmund Husserl, and Gordon Allport have ex- tended and encouraged my understanding and involvement in heu- ristic theory and methodology. I express my gratitude to Vange Puszcz and Helen Saxton, who not only typed the manuscript several times but lived through it with me. I also thank Betty Moustakas, who helped create a loving and peaceful setting in which the work could establish its roots and grow. Finally, I recognize the Center for Humanistic Studies and The Union In stitu te which provide resources, opportunities, and support for investiga- tions of human science research that utilizes heuristic processes and discoveries, and encouragement that has enabled subjective and ob- jective fantasies and realities to unite and find necessary and essential value in science, psychotherapy, and everyday human experience. Clark Moustakas 1 Introduction: Resources and Inspirations "Heuristic" research came into my life when I was searching for a word that would meaningfully encompass the processes that I be- lieved to be essential in investigations of human expe rience. The root meaning of heuristic comes fr om the Greek word heuriskein, meaning to discover or to find. It refers to a process of internal search through which one discovers the nature and meaning of experience and devel- ops methods and procedures for further investigation and analysis. The self of the researcher is present throughout the process and, while understanding the phenomenon with increasing depth, the researcher also experiences growing self-awareness and self-knowledge. Heuris- tic processes incorporate creative self-processes and self-discoveries. The cousin word of heuristics is eureka, exemplified by the Greek math ematician Archimedes' discovery of a principle of buoyancy. While taking a bath, he experienc ed a sudden, striking realization- the "aha" phenomenon-and ran naked through the streets shouting "eureka!" The process of discovery leads inve st igators to new images and meanings regarding human phenomena, but also to realizations relevant to their own experiences and lives. As an organized and systematic form for investigating human experience, heuristic research was launched with the publication of Loneliness (Moustakas, 1961) and continued in my explorations of Loneliness and Love (Moustakas, 1972) and The Touch of Loneliness (Moustakas, 1975). Other works influencing the development of heu- ristic methodology included Ma slow's (1956, 1966, 1971) research on self-actualizing persons and Jourard's (1968, 1971) investigations of se lf -disclosure. Also of significance in the evolution of heuristic con- cepts are Polanyi's e lu cidations of the tacit dimension (Polanyi, 1964, 1966, 1%9), indwelling and personal knowledge (Polanyi, 1962); Buber's (1958, 1961, 1965) explorations of dialogue and mutuality; Bridgman's 9 10 HEURISTIC RESEARCH (1950) delineations of subjective-objective truth; and Gendlin's (1962) analysis of meaning of experiencing. Rogers' work on human science (Coulson & Rogers, 1968; Rogers, 1969, 1985) added theoretical and conceptual depth to the heuristic paradigm presented in Individuality and Encounter (Moustakas, 1968) and Rhythms, Rituals, and Relation- ships (Moustakas, 1981). Phenomenological underpinnings of heuris- tics were developed in Phenomenology, Science, and Psychotherapy (Moustakas, 1988). As part of my own heuristic process in creating this work, I gathered before me the relatively recent investigations for which I served as research guide. These included the inner world of teaching (Craig, 1978); transforming self-doubt into self-confidence (Prefontaine, 1979); shyness (Macintyre, 1983); self-reclamation (Schultz, 1983); being sensitive (McNally, 1982); being inspired (Rourke, 1984); return to Mexican-American ethnic identity (Rodriguez, 1985); the mystery of everyday life (Varani, 1985); feeling unconditionally loved (Hawka, 1986); the psychologically androgynous male (Clark, 1988); synchro- nicity (Marshall, 1987); feeling connected to nature G Snyder, 1989); growing up in a fatherless home (Cheyne, 1989); rejecting love (R. Snyder, 1988); precognitive dreams (M. Potts, 1988); interaction rhythms in intimate relations (Shaw, 1989); and the experience of writing poetry (Vaughn, 1989). Along with the above works, I brought together my personal notes and spontaneous self-reflective writings for study and analysis. I also reviewed heuristic literature and reexamined my seminar outlines and presentations on heuristic design and methodology. I returned to lyric poetry, autobiography, and biography. I engaged in an immersion process, open and receptive to the nature of discovery, welcoming alternating rhythms of concentrated focus and inventive distraction. I searched within my knowledge and experience for deepened and extended awareness that would further illuminate structures and essences of heuristic discovery. I found particular meaning in studies that exemplified the heuristic paradigm and provided practical meth- ods and procedures for its operational effectiveness in investigating human experience. The heuristic process is a way of being informed, a way of knowing. Whatever presents itself in the consciousness of the investigator as perception, sense, intuition, or knowledge represents an invitation for further elucidation. What appears, what shows itself as itself, casts a light that enables one to come to know more fully what something is Introduction: Resour ce s and Inspirations 11 and means. In such a process not only is knowledge extended but the self of the researcher is illuminated. Descartes' assertion accurately describes the perspective of the heuristic researcher: No one can convince me "that I am nothing as long as I think myself to be something . .. I am, I exist, every time it is pronounced by me, or mentally conceived, it necessarily is true," (Descartes, 1977). From the beginning and throughout an investigation, heuristic research involves self-search, self-dialogue, and self-discovery; the research question and the methodology flow out of inner awaren ess, meaning, and inspiration. When I consider an issue, problem, or question, I enter into it fully. I focus on it with unwavering attention and interest. I search introspectively, meditatively, and reflectively into its nature and meaning. My primary task is to recognize whatever exists in my consciousness as a fundamental awareness, to receive and accept it, and then to dwell on its nature and possible meanings. With full and unqualified interest, I am determined to extend my under- standing and knowledge of an experience. I begin the heuristic inves- tigation with my own self-awareness and explicate tha t awareness with reference to a question or problem until an essential insight is achieved, one that will throw a beginning light onto a critical human • experience. In the process of a heuristic search, I may challenge, confront, or even doubt my understanding of a human concern or issue; but when I persist in a disciplined and devoted way I ultimately deepen my knowledge of the phenomenon. In the heuristic process, I am person- ally involved. I am searching for qualities, conditions, and relation- ships that underlie a fundamental question, issue, or concern. In heuristic investigations, I may be entranced by visions, images, and dreams that connect me to my quest. I may come into touch with new regions of myself, and discover revealing connections with oth- ers. Through the guides of a heuristic design, I am able to see and understand in a different way. If I am investigating the meaning of delight, then delight hovers nearby and follows me around. It takes me fully in to its confidence and I take it into mine. Delight becomes a lingering presence; for awhile, there is only delight. It opens me to the world in a joyous way and takes me into a richness, playfulness and childlikeness tha t move freely and effortlessly. I am ready to see, feel, touch, or hear wh atev er opens me to a fuller knowledge and understanding of the experience of delight. 12 HEURI STIC R ESEARCH In heuristics, an unshakable co nnection exists between what is out there, in its appearan ce and reality, and what is within me in reflective th ought, feeling, and awareness. It is I the person living in a world wit h o th ers, alone yet inseparable from the commun ity of others; I who see an d understand so m ething, freshly, as if for the first time; I who com e to know essential meanings inherent in my expe rience. I stand o ut within my experiences and in the entire domain of m y interest and concern. Moffi tt (1971, p. 149) captures thi s kind of se eing and knowing in hi s poem "To Look At Any Thing": To look at any thing If you would know that thing, You must look at it long: To look at this green and say "I have seen spring in these Woods," will not do-you must Be the thing yo u see: You must be the dark snakes of Stems and ferny plumes of leaves, You must enter in To the small silences between The leav~, You must take your time And touch the very place They issue from. In Moffitt's sense, as a research er I am th e person who is ch allenged to apprehen d the meaning of thing s and to give th ese meanings ongoing life. I provide the light that gu ide s the explicat i on of so me- thing and knowledge of it. When I illuminate a que stion, it comes to life. When I understand its cons titu e nt s, it emerges as something solid and real. Emphas is on the investigator's interna l frame of reference, self- searching, intuiti on, and indwe lling lies at the heart of heuri stic inquiry. An exam ple of the opening of a heuristic search may be found in Roads' Talking With Nature (1987). Before anything else could beco me part of hi s knowledge, Roads ente red into a dialogu e with trees, plants, animal s, birds, and the earth. He heard nature sp eak to him, "Help yourself. If you wi sh to tell th e st ory of our co nne cti on, th en write from the point o f contact w hi ch you ar e" ( p. 1). Roads responded: " How can we write of unseen Introduction: Resources and Inspirations 13 realities, hint of unheard concepts, or even demonstrate the practical- ity of inner truths, without disturbing the slumbering Self within?" (p. 22). Th e answer: "Let go and fall into the river. Let the river of life sweep you beyond all aid from old and worn concepts. I will s upport you . Trust me. As you swim from an old consciousness, blind to higher realities beyond your physical world, trust that I will guide you with care a nd l ove into a new stream of conscious ne ss. I will open a new world before you Can you trust me e nough to let go of the kn ow n and s wim in an unknown current?" (p. 26). It is just this swimming int o an "u nknown current " that is so striking in heuristic beginnings. The dawni ng of awareness may be refreshing and peaceful, or it may be disturbing and even jarring. Whatever the effect, the heuristic process requires a ret urn to the self, a recognition of self-awareness, and a valuing of one's own experi- ence. The heu ristic process challenges me to rely on my own re- sources, and to gat her within my se lf th e full scope of my ob servations, thoughts, feelings, senses, and intuitions; to accept as authentic and valid whatever will open new channels for clarifying a topic, question, problem , or puzzlement. I begin the heuri stic journey with so mething that has called to me from within my life experience, so m et hing to which I have associa- tions and fleeting awarenesses but whose nature is largely unknown. In such an odyssey, I know little of the territ ory through which I must travel. But one thing is ce rtain, the mystery summons me and lures me "to let go of the known and s wim in an unknown current." Essentially, in the heuristic process, I am creating a story that portrays the qualities, meanings, and essences of universally unique experiences. Through an unwav ering and steady inward gaze and inner freedom to explore and acce pt what is, I am reaching i nto deeper and deeper regio ns of a human problem or experience and com ing to know and und ers tand its und erlying dynamics and constituents more a nd more fully. The initial " dat a" is within me ; the challe ng e is to dis co ver and explicate its nature In the process, I am not only lifting out the essential meanings of an e xp erience, but I am actively awak - ening and transforming my own self. Self-understanding and se lf- growt h occur simultaneously in heuristic discovery. Buber (1961) h as brought to life the heuristic power of telling a story in the ri ght way and the co ncurrent shift in o ne 's life and being. The story of a crucial human experience must be told in such a way that in itself it enables self-transformation, as in Buber 's tale of the lame grandfather who , 14 HEURISTIC RESEARCH while imitating the way in which his holy Baal Shem would h op and dan ce while praying, suddenly himself began to hop and dan ce and wa s dramatically cu red of his lameness. To ca pture the r es ourc es a nd pow ers of telling one 's story, one enga ges the full range of se lf-resources. On e dr aws out all that is pr esent in context an d con tent in a n active and lively un fol din g drama, and brin gs one's knowledge an d experience into poetical depi ctions. H e uri stic research is a de manding process. It requires "rigorous definition, careful collection of data , and a th oroug h and disciplined analysis. It pl aces immense responsibility on th e researcher." (Frick, 1990, p . 79). In heuristic research the inv estigator mu st have had a direct, per so nal en coun ter with the phenom e non being inves- tigated. There must have been a ctua l autobiographical co nn ections. Unlike phenomenological stu di es in whi ch the researcher need not hav e had the experience (e.g., giving birth throu gh artificial insemi- nat ion), the h eu ristic research er ha s undergone the experience in a vital, intense, and full way- if not th e experience as such, then a comparable or e quivalent experience. For example, Nancy Bemthal (1990 ) studied the experience of first-time parenthood with an adopted forei gn c hild . B er nthal inve stiga ted the topic usin g heuristic method- ology, on th e basis of first-time parenthood of h er own "natura I birth" child. The heuristic research process is not o ne that can be hurr ied or timed by the clock or calendar. It demand s the total presence, honesty, maturit y, and integrity of a researcher who not only strongly desires to know and understand bu t is wi ll ing to commi t endless hours of sustained immersion and f ocused concentration on one central ques- tion, to ri sk th e open ing of wounds a nd passionate concerns, and to undergo the personal transformation th at exists as a possibi lity in e very heuristic jo urne y. 2 Heuristic Concepts , Processes , and Validation Heuristic inquiry is a process that begins with a question or problem which the researcher seeks to illuminate or answer. The question is one that has be en a personal challenge an d puzzlement in the search to understand one's self and the world in which one lives. Th e heuristic process is autobiographic, yet wi th virtually ev ery quest ion that matters personally there is also a social-and p er haps uni- versal-sig nificance. Heuristics is a way of engaging in scientific search throu gh methods and processes aimed at discovery; a way of self-inquiry and dialogue with others aim ed at finding the unde rlying meanings of important human experiences. The deepest currents of meaning and knowledge take place within the individual through one's senses, perceptions, beliefs, and judgments. This requires a passionate, disciplined com- mitment to remain with a question intensely and contin uous ly until it is illuminated or answered. CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES OF HEUR I STIC RESE ARCH Identifying with the Focus of Inquiry Through exploratory open-ended inquiry, self-direct ed search, and immersion in active experience, one is ab le to get inside th e question, become one with it, and thus achieve an understanding of it. Sa lk (1983) has called this kind of identification with the fo cus of the investigation "the inverted perspective" and has described the pro- cess as follows: 15 16 HEURISTIC RESEARCH ln order to understand what follows it will be necessary for me to refer to certain effects of inverted perspective which I h ave f ou nd valuable in my scientific work and which I have also used as a device to understand the human condition. I do not remember exactly at what point I began to apply this way of examining my experience, but very early in my life I would imagine myself in the position of the object in which I was interested. Later, when I became a scientist, I would picture myself as a virus, or as a cancer cell, for example, and try to sense what it would be like to be eithe r. I would also imagine myself as the immune system, and I would try to reconstruct what I would do as an immune system engaged in combating a virus or cancer cell . .. Before long, this internal dialogue became second nature to me; I found that my mind worked this way all the time. (p. 7) Se lf -Dialogue In addition to the significance of becoming one with what one is seeking to know , one may enter into dialogue with the phenomenon, allowing the phenomenon to spea k directly to one's own experience, to be questioned by it. ln this way, one is able to encounte r and examine it, to engage in a rhythmic flow with it - back a nd forth, again and again-until one has uncov ered its multiple meanings. Then one is able to depict the experience in its many aspects or foldings into core themes and essences. Self-dialogue is the critical beginning; the recognition that if one is go in g to be able to discover the constituents and qualities that make up an experience, one must begin with oneself. One's own self-d i scoveries, awarenesses, and understandings are the initial steps of th e process. Heuristic inquiry requires that one be open, receptive, and attuned to all facets of one's expe rience of a phenomenon, allowing compre- hension and compassion to mingle and recognizing the place and unity of intellect, emotion, and spirit. The heuristic researcher is seeking to und erstand the wholeness and the un ique pattern s of experiences in a scientifically organized and disciplined way. Heuris- tics, like any other science, is "a search for unity in hidden likenesses" (B ronowski, 1965, p. 13). Craig (1978) has emp hasiz ed that in scientific inquiry the heuristic process moves from whole to part and back to whole again, "from th e individual to the general and back again ... from the feeling to the word and back to the feeling, from the experi- ence to the concept and back to the experience" (p. 57). Concepts, Pr ocesses, and Validation 17 Rogers (1969) ha s s ummarized the essential qualities of discovery in terms of openne ss to one's own experiences, trust in one's self- awareness and understa nding, an int er nal l ocus of evaluation, a nd a wi llingnes s to e nter into a pr ocess r oo ted in the self. Preliminary awareness of one's o wn knowledge and experience of a critical life i ss u e, c hall enge , o r problem enable s o ne to begin a s tud y of the problem or concern. As the inquiry ex pands, such self-know l edge enab l es one to d evelo p the ability and skill to understand th e problem more fu lly, and ultimately to deepen a nd extend the understanding through the eyes and voices of others Mas l ow (1966) ha s e mphasized that " there is no s ub s titute for experience, none at all. All the other paraphernalia of co mmunication and of knowledge words, labe l s, co ncepts , symbols, theories , formula s, sc iences-all are usefu l only beca use people already knew them experie ntiall y'' (pp. 45-46). The pro cess of self-dia logue makes possib le the derivation of a body of scie ntific kn o wledge that is u se ful. Su ch a proce ss is guided by a co n ce ption that knowledge grows ou t o f direct human experience and ca n be di scovered a nd explicated initially through se lf-inquiry. In their reflecti ons on human inquiry , Douglass and Moustakas (1985) have observed that learning that proceeds heuristically has a path of its own. It is self- directed, self-motivated, and open to spontaneous shift. It defies the shac kl es of convention and tradition .... It pushes beyond the known, the expected, or the merely possible. Without the restraining leash of forma l hypotheses, and free from external methodological structures that limit awareness or channel it, the one who searches heuristically may draw upon the perceptual powers afforded by ... direct experience. (p. 44) In self-dialogue, one faces oneself and mu st be hone st with oneself and o ne's exp erience re levant to the question or problem. Jourard (1971) has po inted out that se lf-di sc losure is "t he act of making yourse lf mani fest, showi ng yourself so o thers can perceive you " (p. 19). Dougla ss a nd Moustaka s ( 19 85) also stress the value of self- disclosure: "At the heart of heuri stics lies an emphasis on disclosing th e self as a w ay of facilitat in g di sc lo s ure from othe rs- a response to the tacit dim e ns ion withi n on eself s p ar ks a similar call from ot her s" (p. 50).