Languages of Science in the Eighteenth Century Languages of Science in the Eighteenth Century Edited by Britt-Louise Gunnarsson De Gruyter Mouton ISBN 978-3-11-025505-8 e-ISBN 978-3-11-025506-5 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Languages of science in the eighteenth century / edited by Britt- Louise Gunnarsson. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-3-11-025505-8 (alk. paper) 1. Science Europe History 18th century. 2. Technical writing Europe History 18th century. 3. Scientists Europe Intellectual life 18th century. I. Gunnarsson, Britt-Louise. Q127.E8L36 2011 509.4 1 09033 dc23 2011017257 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. 2011 Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/Boston Typesetting: PTP-Berlin Protago-T E X-Production GmbH, Berlin Printing: Hubert & Co. GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com ISBN 978-3-11-021808-4 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-021809-1 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-021806-2 ISSN 0179-0986 e-ISSN 0179-3256 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 License, as of February 23, 2017. For details go to http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress. Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliogra- fie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.dnb.de abrufbar. © 2016 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Druck und Bindung: Duck & Co., Ortsname ♾ Gedruckt auf säurefreiem Papier Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com ISBN 978-3-11-021808-4 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-021809-1 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-021806-2 ISSN 0179-0986 e-ISSN 0179-3256 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 License, as of February 23, 2017. For details go to http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress. Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliogra- fie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.dnb.de abrufbar. © 2016 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Druck und Bindung: Duck & Co., Ortsname ♾ Gedruckt auf säurefreiem Papier Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com An electronic version of this book is freely available, thanks to the support of libra- ries working with Knowledge Unlatched. KU is a collaborative initiative designed to make high quality books Open Access. More information about the initiative can be found at www.knowledgeunlatched.org Contents Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Editor’s acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Introduction Introduction: Languages of science in the eighteenth century . . . . . . 3 Britt-Louise Gunnarsson Section 1. The forming of scientific communities Church, state, university, and the printing press: Conditions for the emergence and maintenance of autonomy of scientific publication in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Charles Bazerman Philology in the eighteenth century: Europe and Sweden . . . . . . . . 45 Gunilla Gren-Eklund The Swedish Academy of Sciences: Language policy and language practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Ulf Teleman Section 2. The emergence of new languages of science Scientific literacy in eighteenth-century Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Renata Schellenberg From vernacular to national language: Language planning and the discourse of science in eighteenth-century Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Anna Helga Hannesdóttir From Latin and Swedish to Latin in Swedish. On the early modern emergence of a professional vernacular variety in Sweden . . . . . . . . 123 Lars Wollin vi Contents Science and natural language in the eighteenth century: Buffon and Linnaeus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Richard Sörman From theory of ideas to theory of succedaneum: The Linnaean botanical nomenclature(s) as “a point of view on the world” . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Philippe Selosse Section 3. The spread of scientific ideas Linnaeus’s international correspondence. The spread of a revolution . . 171 Ann-Mari Jönsson The influence of Carl Linnaeus on the Encyclopaedia Britannica of 1771 193 Rosemarie Gläser Linnaeus and the Siberian expeditions: Translating political empire into a kingdom of knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Kenneth J. Knoespel The introduction of the Linnaean classification of nature in Portugal . . 227 Palmira Fontes da Costa Section 4. The development of scientific writing Linnaeus as a connecting link in Swedish language history . . . . . . . 247 Bo Ralph Calendar and aphorism: A generic study of Carl Linnaeus’s Fundamenta Botanica and Philosophia Botanica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Han-Liang Chang The reflective cultivator? Model readers in eighteenth-century Swedish garden literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Andreas Nord The linguistic construction of scientificality in early Swedish medical texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Britt-Louise Gunnarsson Eighteenth-century English medical texts and discourses on reproduction 333 Päivi Pahta Subject index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Contributors Charles Bazerman University of California, Santa Barbara Department of Education 3208 Education Building Santa Barbara CA 93106 USA bazerman@education.ucsb.edu Han-liang Chang Fudan University Department of Chinese 220 Handan Road Shanghai 200433, China National Taiwan University 1 Roosevelt Road, Section 4 Taipei, Taiwan 10674 changhl@ntu.edu.tw Palmira Fontes da Costa Universidade Nova de Lisboa Unit of History and Philosophy of Science and Technology Faculty of Sciences and Technology 2829-516 Campus da Caparica Portugal pfc@fct.unl.pt Rosemarie Gläser University of Leipzig Faculty of Philology Institute of British Studies Private address: Am Staffelstein 6 01328 Dresden Germany viii Contributors Gunilla Gren-Eklund Uppsala University Department of Linguistics and Philology Private address: Salagatan 12B 753 30 Uppsala Sweden gunilla.gren-eklund@lingfil.uu.se Britt-Louise Gunnarsson Uppsala University Department of Scandinavian Languages Box 527 751 20 Uppsala Sweden britt-louise.gunnarsson@nordiska.uu.se Anna Helga Hannesdóttir University of Gothenburg Department of Swedish Box 200 405 30 Göteborg Sweden anna.hannesdottir@svenska.gu.se Ann-Mari Jönsson Uppsala University Department of Linguistics and Philology Box 635 751 26 UPPSALA Sweden ann-mari.jonsson@lingfil.uu.se Kenneth J. Knoespel Georgia Institute of Technology School of Literature, Communication and Culture 221 Bobby Dodd Way Atlanta GA 30332-0165, USA kenneth.knoespel@iac.gatech.edu Contributors ix Andreas Nord University of Gothenburg Department of Swedish Box 200 405 30 Göteborg Sweden andreas.nord@svenska.gu.se Päivi Pahta University of Tampere School of Language, Translation and Literary Studies 33014 University of Tampere Finland paivi.pahta@uta.fi Bo Ralph University of Gothenburg Department of Swedish Box 200 405 30 Göteborg Sweden bo.ralph@svenska.gu.se Renata Schellenberg Mount Allison University Modern Languages and Literature Crabtree Building 49A York Street Sackville N.B. E4L 1C7 Canada rschelle@mta.ca Philippe Selosse Université Lumière Lyon 2 Faculté des Lettres, Sciences du Langage et Arts 18 Quai Claude-Bernard 69365 Lyon cedex 07 France selosse.philippe@wanadoo.fr x Contributors Richard Sörman Uppsala University Department of Modern Languages Box 636 751 26 UPPSALA Sweden richard.sorman@moderna.uu.se Ulf Teleman Lund University Centre for Languages and Literature Box 201 221 00 Lund Sweden ulf.teleman@nordlund.lu.se Lars Wollin Åbo Akademi University Department of Swedish Finland Private address: Noreens väg 21 752 63 Uppsala Sweden lars.wollin@abo.fi Editor’s acknowledgements Most of the chapters in this volume were originally presented as plenary lec- tures or section papers at the Symposium on Languages of Science in the Time of Linnaeus, held in Uppsala in June 2007. This international symposium, co- organized by Hans Helander and myself, was arranged on the initiative of the Faculty of Languages at Uppsala University as part of the commemoration of the tercentenary of the birth of Carl Linnaeus. As editor of this volume, I wish to thank Urban Örneholm for technical assis- tance at an initial stage in the editing process, and Martin Naylor for his careful scrutiny of the English used in chapters written by non-native speakers of that language. Finally, I gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided for the editing and publication of this book by the Faculty of Languages at Uppsala University. Uppsala, August 2011 Britt-Louise Gunnarsson Introduction Introduction: Languages of science in the eighteenth century Britt-Louise Gunnarsson The eighteenth century is an important period in both the history of science and the history of languages. Interest in science, and especially in the useful sciences, exploded and a new, modern approach to scientific discovery and the accumulation of knowledge emerged. It was during this century, too, that ideas on language and language practice began to change more widely, including in northern Europe. There, Latin had been more or less the only written language used for scientific purposes, but gradually the vernaculars became established as fully acceptable alternatives for scientific writing. The period is of interest, moreover, from a genre-historical point of view. Encyclopedias, dictionaries and also correspondence played a key role in the spread of scientific ideas. Scientific nomenclatures were established for the key areas of the time, and concepts and names were discussed in letters, journal articles and encyclopedias. The textual embedding of this discussion, however, showed considerable variation. Writing on scientific matters was not as distinct from fiction, poetry or religious texts as it is today, a fact which also gave a creative liberty to individual writers. It also meant that a few important scientists came to play a role in the development both of their areas of expertise and its nomenclature and of scientific language and prose. In this volume, seventeen authors explore, from a variety of angles, the con- struction of a scientific language and discourse. 1 The chapters are thematically organized into four sections, each contributing to our understanding of this dy- namic period in the history of science: their themes are the forming of scientific communities, the emergence of new languages of science, the spread of scien- tific ideas, and the development of scientific writing. There is a particular focus in this book on the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778). The writing 1. The theoretical framework that can be said to unite the chapters is that of social con- structivism. This perspective has been associated with both the sociology of knowl- edge (e.g. Berger and Luckmann 1967) and the sociology of science (Latour and Woolgar 1986, Bazerman 1988). 4 Britt-Louise Gunnarsson and correspondence of this internationally recognized scientist are highlighted and taken as an example of how the scientists of the eighteenth century played an active part in the construction of both a scientific nomenclature and scien- tific prose. In this introductory chapter, I will begin with a general background to these four thematic sections, before presenting the authors and contents of the individual chapters. 1. The forming of scientific communities Careful and detailed observation of natural phenomena was at the heart of the sciences during this period. Man and nature were to be studied empirically. Sci- entists gathered specimens of plants, insects, animals and minerals, but also of machines, fabrics and household implements. They established collections of these organisms and objects, made meticulous drawings of them, and set about naming them and grouping them into systems and families. Scientific discov- ery and classification also had a practical purpose. It was hoped that new use- ful plants could be introduced and hardy species for medicinal use cultivated. Botanical gardens were created and glasshouses built to learn how best to im- prove and multiply the fruits of nature. The eighteenth-century view of science and progress was in fact imbued with utilitarian thinking. 2 In many European countries, politicians were inspired by the doctrine of mercantilism, which prescribed that as much as possible should be exported and as little as possible imported. Foreign trade was seen as the primary source of a country’s wealth. The state was to be actively involved in the economy, subsidizing industry and promoting both commerce and agri- culture. But a nation’s resources also included its population: the more people there were, the better it was for the country. One of the useful sciences was medicine, and a growing number of doctors observed the progress of diseases in individual patients. Different cures and treatments were also tried. By metic- ulous observation and description of individual cases, this branch of science, too, sought to combine empirical precision with benefits to humanity. Great store was set by both the economic and the natural sciences during this period. To bring together practitioners of different useful sciences, academies and societies inspired by classical models were established in the second half of 2. Among literature with a focus on the climate of science and thought in the eigh- teenth century, I would mention Heckscher (1953), Lindroth (1978) and Johannisson (1988). A detailed account of the early history of Uppsala University can be found in Annerstedt (1912). Introduction: Languages of science in the eighteenth century 5 the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth century, many of them with a king or emperor as their patron. In England the Royal Society of London was founded in 1660, in France the Académie des sciences in 1666, in Schweinfurt, Germany, the Akademie der Naturforscher in 1652, in Russia the Saint Peters- burg Academy of Sciences in 1724, in Sweden the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1739, and in Denmark the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters in 1742. The economic welfare of the country was one of the guiding stars of these institutions, and to achieve the greatest possible benefits they were anxious to disseminate useful scientific findings. As part of their activities, therefore, pe- riodicals were launched: the Royal Society of London published its Philosoph- ical Transactions and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences its Handlingar [Transactions]. Despite the creation of these scientific societies, though, it has to be said that the scientists of the eighteenth century worked in relative isolation. 3 Universi- ties were concerned with teaching, and scientific experiment and observation were not among their undertakings. Professors’ salaries were modest, more- over, so even if a scientist was attached to a university he still had to rely on his ability to secure his own funding. If he was not born rich and had been unable to marry rich, he was forced to seek good relations with individuals in positions of wealth and power. For many scientists, relations with royal or imperial families were important, as heads of state were likely to support useful experiments and expeditions. With only a small number of scientists in each country, scientific communi- ties were not at all specialized. An individual scientist would have few fellow countrymen working in the same subject area as himself. University professors had to cover broad fields in their teaching. When Carl Linnaeus, for example, assumed the chair of medicine at Uppsala University, his teaching duties en- compassed not only dietetics and materia medica , but natural history as well (Broberg 2007:23). Similarly, the academies and societies consisted of individ- uals with different scholarly backgrounds. Scientific discoveries and findings were thus discussed among groups of learned men who, though interested, were not specialists in the same area. Thus, in the eighteenth century, scientific communities were not divided into specialities in the way we are now used to. Nor was there any clear dividing line between research and science on the one hand and family life on the other. Carl Linnaeus’s students, for example, were often guests at his dinner table. 3. For a more in-depth discussion of the sociohistorical construction of scientific dis- course, see Gunnarsson (1997 and 2005). 6 Britt-Louise Gunnarsson By modern standards, then, the scientific communities of the period were small and non-specialized. The scientists of the time were men of society, taking an interest in everything that could be useful to the country in which they lived. As scientific communities, eighteenth-century groupings of scientists thus rep- resent what can be termed a pre-establishment stage of science. 2. The emergence of new languages of science As several studies have shown, a rich tradition of vernacular scientific writ- ing in southern and central European countries can be found as early as the Middle Ages. This tradition gained considerable strength in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, culminating in the first scientific journals in England and France in the mid-1660s, which mostly appeared in English and French (Gotti 1996; Crossgrove 1996; Taavitsainen and Pahta 2004). In northern Eu- rope, however, Latin remained the language of the learned throughout the sev- enteenth century. The eighteenth century can thus be said to be a period of language development and language change more generally. The total domi- nance of Latin as the language of scholarship gradually ceded ground to a more varied language practice. The Reformation, with its Bible translations, had of course paved the way for the use of the vernacular in northern Europe back in the sixteenth century, but in science Latin retained its hold into the eighteenth. 4 If science was to have the desired practical benefits, however, scientists now had to write about their discoveries in the vernacular. The choice of the lat- ter would prove to be a conscious step in the direction of language planning. When a chair in economic sciences was established at Uppsala University in 1741, it was stipulated that the subject was to be taught in Swedish. And it was with practical benefits in mind that Swedish rather than Latin was chosen as the language of the Transactions of the newly founded Swedish Academy of Sciences. Of course, the shift from classical languages to the vernacular was not uni- versal. To reach an international audience, many scientists still preferred to write their major works in Latin. Nor was it absolute, as Latin and Greek were often used for names and terms. Not uncommonly, though, we find terminology in other languages as well. Naming and terminology were an important aspect of science at this time. Scientists were discovering new species and describing new relationships, for 4. Cf. Wendt’s (2005: 1353–1354) discussion of writing for scientific purposes in Den- mark and Sweden in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Introduction: Languages of science in the eighteenth century 7 which it was necessary to devise names that fitted into a system. Naming, in other words, proceeded in parallel with discovery and classification. Encyclo- pedias and dictionaries served to standardize these processes, which of course also attracted debate and criticism. The eighteenth century is an interesting period from the standpoint of lan- guage history, partly because of the gradual transition from Latin to the vernac- ular, and partly in view of the considerable effort devoted to creating nomen- clature and terminology. The study of languages at the universities, however, offered no real basis for that endeavour. There, textual interpretation remained the primary concern, i.e. students were taught to read theological and classical works rather than to compose texts of their own. 3. The spread of scientific ideas In parallel with the concern to reach an interested public, there was of course also a desire that the new discoveries should have an impact internationally. And scientific ideas and findings did indeed spread, across Europe and to other continents as well. Scientific travel in the form of expeditions was part of the exploration of the world – and, for that matter, of nature. It was in the eighteenth century that Captain James Cook made his round-the-world voyages. And it was during the same century that the botanist Carl Linnaeus undertook his expeditions to different provinces of Sweden, before sending his “apostles” to explore plant life around the globe. The travelogues and journals that resulted were printed and read. These expeditions also gave rise to international contacts. Among those who accompanied Cook were, on his first voyage, the naturalist Daniel Solander and, on his second, Anders Sparrman, both of them disciples of Linnaeus. It was also common at this time for young men to travel abroad to engage in aca- demic studies. The universities they chose varied over time, partly depending on the professors teaching there. Educational travel of this kind was of course important in disseminating scientific ideas. It provided scholars with an inter- national network which they could later maintain by means of correspondence. Letter writing played a crucial role in the spread of ideas, but also in sustaining networks among scientists. The eighteenth century, moreover, was a time when encyclopedias and dic- tionaries were written and printed. In France, Diderot and d’Alembert edited the Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers , and in Britain the Encyclopaedia Britannica appeared. The printer’s art had