Smart Wireless Sensor Networks Edited by Hoang Duc Chinh and Yen Kheng Tan Smart WireleSS SenSor netWorkS Edited by mr. Hoang Duc Chinh and Dr. Yen kheng tan (Editor-in-Chief) INTECHOPEN.COM Smart Wireless Sensor Networks http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/660 Edited by Hoang Duc Chinh and Yen Kheng Tan Contributors Alcides Montoya, Demetrio Ovalle, Diana Restrepo, Jun-Won Ho, Chun-Ta Li, Hui Jing, Hitoshi Aida, Deyun Gao, Ali Eksim, Mehmet E. Celebi, Thomas Newe, Sven Zacharias, Nan Hua, Yi Guo, L. Ozlem Karaca, Radosveta Sokullu, Nauman Aslam, Jinsung Cho, Dae-Young Kim, Choon-Sung Nam, Dong-Ryeol Shin, Ricardo Mendão Silva, Jorge Sá Silva, Fernando Boavida, Song Guo, Husna Zainol Abidin, Yusnani Mohd Yussoff, Habibah Hashim, Northwest Polytechnical University rqzhao, Xiaohong Shen, Bin Ma, Xianzhong Xie, Jari Nieminen, Shekar Nethi, Aamir Mahmood, Mikael Björkbom, Lasse Eriksson, Riku Jäntti, Jan Nikodem, Maciej Nikodem, Marek Woda, Ryszard Klempous, Ahmad Sardouk, Majdi Mansouri, Leila Merghem-Boulahia, Hichem Snoussi, Dominique Gaiti, Rana Rahim-Amoud, Cedric Richard, Li Liu, Arijit Ukil © The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2010 The moral rights of the and the author(s) have been asserted. All rights to the book as a whole are reserved by INTECH. The book as a whole (compilation) cannot be reproduced, distributed or used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without INTECH’s written permission. Enquiries concerning the use of the book should be directed to INTECH rights and permissions department (permissions@intechopen.com). Violations are liable to prosecution under the governing Copyright Law. Individual chapters of this publication are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License which permits commercial use, distribution and reproduction of the individual chapters, provided the original author(s) and source publication are appropriately acknowledged. If so indicated, certain images may not be included under the Creative Commons license. In such cases users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. More details and guidelines concerning content reuse and adaptation can be foundat http://www.intechopen.com/copyright-policy.html. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. First published in Croatia, 2010 by INTECH d.o.o. eBook (PDF) Published by IN TECH d.o.o. Place and year of publication of eBook (PDF): Rijeka, 2019. IntechOpen is the global imprint of IN TECH d.o.o. Printed in Croatia Legal deposit, Croatia: National and University Library in Zagreb Additional hard and PDF copies can be obtained from orders@intechopen.com Smart Wireless Sensor Networks Edited by Hoang Duc Chinh and Yen Kheng Tan p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-261-6 eBook (PDF) ISBN 978-953-51-5529-4 Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI) Interested in publishing with us? Contact book.department@intechopen.com Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected. For more information visit www.intechopen.com 4,000+ Open access books available 151 Countries delivered to 12.2% Contributors from top 500 universities Our authors are among the Top 1% most cited scientists 116,000+ International authors and editors 120M+ Downloads We are IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open Access books Built by scientists, for scientists Meet the editors Yen Kheng Tan received his B.Eng degree in Electri- cal and Computer Engineering (ECE) from National University of Singapore (NUS) in 2003 and the Master of Technological Design (Mechatronics Engineering) degree jointly offered by NUS and the Eindhoven Uni- versity of Technology (TU/e) in 2006. Since 2006, he has been working towards his Ph.D degree in the Depart- ment of ECE of NUS. Presently, he is leading a team of research engineers at the Energy Research Institute @NTU (ERI@N). His research interests are micro-power generations from solar, wind, thermal and vibration energy sources, energy harvesting wireless sensor network, nonlinear control and motor drives, electric vehicles, wireless power transfer, rehabilitation engi- neering and assistive technology. Yen Kheng is on the Technical Program Committee of numerous conferences and reviewer of papers for a number of prestigious international journals. He is also the book editor of several books as well. [http://www.ece.nus.edu.sg/emdl/yenkheng.htm] Hoang Duc Chinh graduated with a Bachelor degree in Electrical Engineering from Hanoi University of Tech- nology, Vietnam in June 2007. Then he joined for Toshi- ba Software Development Vietnam as a software engi- neer working with embedded systems. He is currently working towards the Ph.D degree at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engi- neering at the National University of Singapore, Singapore. His research interests include wireless sensor networks, embedded networking systems and optimization methods. Part 1 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Part 2 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Preface XIII Overview and Design Methodology 1 Advanced Communication Solutions for Reliable Wireless Sensor Systems 3 Jari Nieminen, Shekar Nethi, Mikael Björkbom, Aamir Mahmood, Lasse Eriksson and Riku Jäntti Factors that may influence the performance of wireless sensor networks 29 Majdi Mansouri, Ahmad Sardouk, Leila Merghem-Boulahia, Dominique Gaiti, Hichem Snoussi, Rana Rahim-Amoud and Cédric Richard Smart Environments and Cross-Layer Design 49 L. Ozlem KARACA and Radosveta SOKULLU Artificial Intelligence for Wireless Sensor Networks Enhancement 73 Alcides Montoya, Diana Carolina Restrepo and Demetrio Arturo Ovalle Network protocols, architectures and technologies 83 Broadcast protocols for wireless sensor networks 85 Ruiqin Zhao, Xiaohong Shen and Xiaomin Zhang Routing Protocol with Unavailable Nodes in Wireless Sensor Networks 101 Deyun Gao, Linjuan Zhang and Yingying Gong Relation-based Message Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks 127 Jan Nikodem, Maciej Nikodem, Marek Woda, Ryszard Klempous and Zenon Chaczko Contents X Contents MIPv6 Soft Hand-off for Multi-Sink Wireless Sensor Networks 147 Ricardo Silva, Jorge Sa Silva and Fernando Boavida Cooperative Clustering Algorithms for Wireless Sensor Networks 157 Hui Jing and Hitoshi Aida A Cluster Head Election Method for Equal Cluster Size in Wireless Sensor Network 173 Choon-Sung Nam, Kyung-Soo Jang and Dong-Ryeol Shin Optimizing Coverage in 3D Wireless Sensor Networks 189 Nauman Aslam Quality of Service Management and Time synchronization 205 Mechanism and Instance: a Research on QoS based on Negotiation and Intervention of Wireless Sensor Networks 207 Nan Hua and Yi Guo A Reliable and Flexible Transmission Method in Wireless Sensor Networks 229 Dae-Young Kim and Jinsung Cho Performance Analysis of Binary Sensor-Based Cooperative Diversity Using Limited Feedback 237 Ali EK Şİ M and Mehmet E. ÇELEB İ Time Synchronization in Wireless Sensor Networks 253 Jonggoo Bae and Bongkyo Moon Time Synchronization of Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks 281 Li Liu Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Part 3 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Contents XI Security 297 Security of Wireless Sensor Networks: Current Status and Key Issues 299 Chun-Ta Li A Compromise-resilient Pair-wise Rekeying Protocol in Hierarchical Wireless Sensor Networks 315 Song Guo and Zhuzhong Qian Security architecture, trust management model with risk evaluation and node selection algorithm for WSN 327 Bin Ma and Xianzhong Xie Distributed Detection of Node Capture Attacks in Wireless Sensor Networks 345 Jun-Won Ho Integrity Enhancement in Wireless Sensor Networks 361 Yusnani Mohd Yussoff, Husna Zainol Abidin and Habibah Hashim Technologies and Architectures for Multimedia-Support in Wireless Sensor Networks 373 Sven Zacharias and Thomas Newe Security and Privacy in Wireless Sensor Networks 395 Arijit Ukil Part 4 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 For the past decade, there has been rapid development and advancement in the com- munication and sensor technologies that results in the growth of a new, attractive and challenging research area – the wireless sensor network (WSN). A WSN, which typi- cally consists of a large number of wireless sensor nodes formed in a network fashion, is deployed in environmental fields to serve various sensing and actuating applica- tions. With the integration of sensing devices on the sensor nodes, the nodes have the abilities to perceive many types of physical parameters such as, light, humidity, vibra- tion, etc. about the ambient conditions. In addition, the capability of wireless commu- nication, small size and low power consumption enable sensor nodes to be deployed in different types of environment including terrestrial, underground and underwater. These properties facilitate the sensor nodes to operate in both stationary and mobile networks deployed for numerous applications, which include environmental remote sensing, medical healthcare monitoring, military surveillance, etc. For each of these application areas, the design and operation of the WSNs are different from conven- tional networks such as the internet. The network design must take into account of the specific applications. The nature of deployed environment must be considered. The limited of sensor nodes’ resources such as memory, computational ability, communi- cation bandwidth and energy source are the challenges in network design. As such, a smart wireless sensor network, able to deal with these constraints as well as to guar- antee the connectivity, coverage, reliability and security of network’s operation for a maximized lifetime, has been illustrated. In this smart wireless sensor network (WSN) book, various aspects of designing a smart WSN have been investigated and discussed. The main topics include: advanc- es in smart wireless ad hoc and sensor networks, algorithms and protocols for smart WSN management and performance and quality of service (QoS) of smart WSNs. Sev- eral key issues, challenges and state-of-the-art methods for designing and developing smart WSNs will be addressed throughout the 23 chapters of this book. Chapter 1 pres - ents communication protocol stacks for WSNs which include physical layer, medium access control layer and network layer. State-of-the-art solutions applied in different layers to guarantee the communication reliability are discussed and evaluated. Novel communication protocols and simulation tools are proposed to enhance the perfor- mance and reliability of smart sensor systems. Chapter 2 discusses the factors that may influence the desired operation of WSNs. The impact of sensor nodes characteristics and network deployment on WSNs’ performance are investigated. WSNs’ information functions including the parameters and method of evaluating data importance are also presented. Chapter 3 and 4 focuses on design methodologies for WSNs. Chapter Preface XIV Preface 3 provides a survey of cross-layer protocol design frameworks and define some major criteria to evaluate these frameworks. Meanwhile, chapter 4 proposes a novel model which applies the concept of intelligent multi-agent system on designing distributed sensor networks. Chapter 5 to 11 present various protocols and algorithms proposed for WSNs with the expectation of improving communication efficiency, saving energy and maximizing network lifetime. Chapter 5 deals with a broadcast storm problem, an efficient broad- cast protocol is proposed in order to achieve maximum lifetime of the WSNs. Chapter 6 focuses on developing multi-hop routing protocol for WSNs which consists of un- available nodes due to failure. The protocol is designed and implemented in real sen- sor nodes. Experiments are conducted to evaluating the performance of the networks. Chapter 7 introduces a relational model that represents the dependences between nodes of the network and defines the actions of these nodes in different situations. Based on this model, communication activities of the network are managed in order to route the message from nodes to the base station efficiently. Chapter 8 presents a frame- work for an effective support of mobility in WSNs. The approach is using the mobile IPv6 protocol, the Neighbor Discovery for finding sink nodes and subsequent node registration, and the soft hand-off mechanisms for maintaining connectivity of mov- ing nodes. In chapter 9, game theoretic model is applied to form cluster-based WSNs. A cooperative game theoretic clustering algorithm is proposed for balancing energy consumption of sensor nodes and increasing network lifetime. The system-wide op- timization is obtained from the conditions of cooperation, each sensor node tradeoff individual cost with the network-wide cost. Chapter 10 shows another energy-efficient cluster formation method. The optimized clustering structure is achieved by prevent- ing unequal size of clusters, finding the optimal number of nodes in a cluster, and re-electing cluster head for balancing local cluster. Chapter 11 deals with the problem of maximizing the covered area of 3-dimensional WSNs. A distributed algorithm is developed and executed at sensor nodes to establish a connected topology while maxi- mize the covered sensing area of the network. Chapter 12, 13, and 14 introduce novel techniques and mechanisms used for manag- ing the Quality of Service (QoS) of WSNs. Chapter 12 provides the understand of QoS mechanisms, presents research on an instance of QoS and shows the improvement achieved by applying this instance. Chapter 13 presents a new method which can be used to guarantee various level of communication reliability in WSNs. A flexible loss recover mechanism is proposed and the tradeoff between end-to-end delays and mem- ory requirements for different levels of communication reliability is evaluated. Chapter 14 focuses on improving the transmission energy consumption of WSNs while the QoS of communication is guaranteed. Chapter 15 and 16 discuss the time synchronization techniques for WSNs. Chapter 15 provides an overview of time synchronization in WSNs. Fundamental techniques, influenced factors, uncertainties and errors, as well as evaluating metrics of time synchronization are identified. Different time synchroniza- tion methods are presented and evaluated. Chapter 16 focuses on time synchronization for underwater WSNs. The typical attributes of this type of WSNs are addressed; the effect of underwater environment on the performance of a specific time synchroniza- tion algorithm is studied and demonstrated through simulation. Contents XV Chapter 17 to 23 present the security problems in WSNs. Chapter 17 gives an introduc- tion of security threats in WSNs, classify security management method into different categories, discuss and suggest future research issues on security of WSNs. Chapter 18 proposes a compromise-resilient pair-wise rekeying protocol in a three-tier WSN. Performance analysis of this method shows that it is significantly improve the secu- rity level in order to prevent the stealth of secret information of the network during node capture attack. Chapter 19 focuses on detecting node capture attacks in WSNs in order to avoid the harm created by attackers to WSNs. Chapter 20 introduces a secu- rity architecture that provides confidentiality, integrity and authentication with trust management for WSNs. A cross-layer wireless sensor network trust model based on cloud model is also developed and proved to be able to decrease trust risk of nodes and enhance successful cooperation ratio of WSN’s system. Chapter 21 highlights the security problems at the physical layer and hardware platform. Security challenges and potential physical attacks in WSNs are listed; the trusted platform and security architecture for sensor nodes are also presented. Chapters 22 and 23 describe technolo - gies and architectures of WSNs. A special type of WSNs, wireless multimedia sensor networks (WMSNs), is highlighted and studied. This chapter also discusses and com - pares different hardware platforms and architectures for WMSNs. In summary, with a variety of design and development aspects being considered and discussed, the concept introductions and research discussions of this smart wireless sensor network (WSN) book are expected to benefit both the industry developers work- ing in sensor network systems, as well as the researchers and graduate students con- ducting research on WSNs. The editor would like to take this opportunity to thank all the authors for their kind contributions and to all those people who have directly or indirectly helped to make this work possible. Special thanks are also presented to Yen Kheng Tan, chief editor of Smart and Sustainable WSN book series, and Mrs Jelena Marusic, process manager, whom are responsible for the coordination of this entire project. Mr. Hoang Duc Chinh and Dr. Yen Kheng Tan (Editor-in-Chief) Part 1 Overview and Design Methodology Advanced Communication Solutions for Reliable Wireless Sensor Systems 3 X Advanced Communication Solutions for Reliable Wireless Sensor Systems Jari Nieminen, Shekar Nethi, Mikael Björkbom, Aamir Mahmood, Lasse Eriksson and Riku Jäntti Aalto University, School of Science and Technology Finland 1. Introduction State-of-the-art Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) technology enables design and implementation of novel, intriguing applications that can be used to address numerous industrial, environmental, societal and economical challenges and thus, the importance and potential of WSNs are constantly growing. Wireless sensor nodes constituting a WSN consist of a sensor interface, microcontroller, memory and battery units together with a radio module. Hence, wireless sensor nodes are able to carry out distributed sensing and data processing, and to share the collected data using radio communications. In the beginning the development of wireless sensors was driven by military applications but the introduction of civilian wireless sensor systems has greatly diversified application domain which has further boosted research efforts in the field of wireless sensor networks. Present state of the evolution of wireless sensor nodes allows utilization of smart sensors to enhance the performance and robustness of WSNs. From the communication engineering point of view the large number of possible applications, see e.g. (Römer & Mattern, 2004), introduces unforeseen problems for which classical communication solutions are not suitable while smart sensors give us tools for finding answers to these new-found questions. Furthermore, a large number of communication protocols have been designed for specific applications but the lack of generic solutions brings up problems with respect to large scale economic success. Since versatility of WSN applications is unimaginable and the amount of possible operation scenarios is unlimited, designed protocols should be suitable for various purposes of use. Consequently, scalability and flexibility of technical solutions are extremely important to enable economic feasibility of energy-constrained wireless sensor networks. The chapter discusses new communication protocols and state-of-the-art design methodologies as well as good practices that together enable reliable operation of various wireless sensor networks. We especially focus on reliability issues since many WSN applications are located in troublesome environments. For example, in the context of industrial WSNs reliability has been denoted as one of the fundamental design goals 1 Smart Wireless Sensor Networks 4 (Gungor & Hancke, 2009). In this chapter we only consider so called media layers, i.e. physical, data link and network layers, and exclude upper layers. Naturally, research efforts in the field of WSNs include various other aspects as well and we direct an interested reader to see (Yick et al., 2008) and (Akyildiz et al., 2002) for comprehensive surveys. The main contributions of this chapter include a review of current technologies used in wireless sensor networks and of the state-of-the-art solutions. We also discuss and propose novel communication protocols to enhance the performance and reliability of smart sensor systems. In each of the sections we present a comprehensive literature review and give the main references for an interested reader to further pursue on the topics. In the end of each section current state-of-the-art solutions will be introduced along with measurement and/or simulation results. The chapter is outlined as follows. First, we review several existing physical layer methods that can be used to improve the reliability of WSNs and discuss utilization of antenna diversity in this context. After this, we cover possible media access mechanisms to guarantee data transmissions by considering both, single- and multi-channel systems. Next, solutions for enhancing reliability on the network layer are studied. Finally, we will investigate some practical WSN applications, mainly focusing on wireless automation and control, with a full-scale simulator to validate and justify the proposed designs. 2. Physical Layer and Diversity for Reliability The main task of physical layer algorithms is to enable reliable delivery of bit streams over physical medium by carrying out transmission, reception and signal modulation. Other objectives include cooperation with the Media Access Control (MAC) layer to ensure error- free communications and providing channel information for MAC layer to make operational decisions. Due to the inherent characteristics of WSNs, physical layer solutions have strict limitations in terms of energy consumption and processing power compared to traditional wireless systems. Hence, the sensors’ hardware abilities have to be taken into account while designing physical layer solutions. In the context of wireless sensors, several options for transmission medium exist. Optical communications, such as laser and infrared, can be exploited if a line-of-sight connection between a transmitter and receiver is available. On the other hand, in underwater WSN applications acoustic communications are used due to the signals attenuation properties of water (Akyildiz et al., 2005). Nevertheless, undoubtedly most of the current WSN applications use radio frequencies and exploit global, unlicensed frequency bands, for example the Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) band, for communications. Therefore, we focus exclusively on these particular frequency bands in this chapter. This section consists of two main parts. In the first part we present and discuss existing physical layer methods, such as signal multiplexing, modulation and error coding, by focusing especially on reliability issues. In the second part we consider exploitation of antenna diversity in advanced sensor systems and present measurement results which imply that antenna diversity should be exploited to improve reliability in WSNs. (Gungor & Hancke, 2009). In this chapter we only consider so called media layers, i.e. physical, data link and network layers, and exclude upper layers. Naturally, research efforts in the field of WSNs include various other aspects as well and we direct an interested reader to see (Yick et al., 2008) and (Akyildiz et al., 2002) for comprehensive surveys. The main contributions of this chapter include a review of current technologies used in wireless sensor networks and of the state-of-the-art solutions. We also discuss and propose novel communication protocols to enhance the performance and reliability of smart sensor systems. In each of the sections we present a comprehensive literature review and give the main references for an interested reader to further pursue on the topics. In the end of each section current state-of-the-art solutions will be introduced along with measurement and/or simulation results. The chapter is outlined as follows. First, we review several existing physical layer methods that can be used to improve the reliability of WSNs and discuss utilization of antenna diversity in this context. After this, we cover possible media access mechanisms to guarantee data transmissions by considering both, single- and multi-channel systems. Next, solutions for enhancing reliability on the network layer are studied. Finally, we will investigate some practical WSN applications, mainly focusing on wireless automation and control, with a full-scale simulator to validate and justify the proposed designs. 2. Physical Layer and Diversity for Reliability The main task of physical layer algorithms is to enable reliable delivery of bit streams over physical medium by carrying out transmission, reception and signal modulation. Other objectives include cooperation with the Media Access Control (MAC) layer to ensure error- free communications and providing channel information for MAC layer to make operational decisions. Due to the inherent characteristics of WSNs, physical layer solutions have strict limitations in terms of energy consumption and processing power compared to traditional wireless systems. Hence, the sensors’ hardware abilities have to be taken into account while designing physical layer solutions. In the context of wireless sensors, several options for transmission medium exist. Optical communications, such as laser and infrared, can be exploited if a line-of-sight connection between a transmitter and receiver is available. On the other hand, in underwater WSN applications acoustic communications are used due to the signals attenuation properties of water (Akyildiz et al., 2005). Nevertheless, undoubtedly most of the current WSN applications use radio frequencies and exploit global, unlicensed frequency bands, for example the Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) band, for communications. Therefore, we focus exclusively on these particular frequency bands in this chapter. This section consists of two main parts. In the first part we present and discuss existing physical layer methods, such as signal multiplexing, modulation and error coding, by focusing especially on reliability issues. In the second part we consider exploitation of antenna diversity in advanced sensor systems and present measurement results which imply that antenna diversity should be exploited to improve reliability in WSNs.