T able o f C ont e nts E p ig r a p h T i t le P age C opyr igh t P age I ntro d u c t i on PART ONE - THEOR Y C ha pt e r 1 - T he C a us e o f N a z i sm C ha pt e r 2 - T he T ot ali t a r ia n U n i v e rs e C ha pt e r 3 - H i t le r ʼ s W a r A gai nst R ea son C ha pt e r 4 - T he E t hic s o f E v il C ha pt e r 5 - T he N a t i on o f t he E n ligh t e nm e nt C ha pt e r 6 - K a nt V e rsus A m e r ica PART TWO - PRACTICE C ha pt e r 7 - U n i t ed T he y F ell C ha pt e r 8 - T he E mot i on ali st R e pu blic C ha pt e r 9 - T he N a z i S ynt he s i s C ha pt e r 10 - T he C u l tur e o f H a tr ed C ha pt e r 11 - T he K ille rs T ake O v e r C ha pt e r 12 - H i t le r i n P ow e r C ha pt e r 13 - T he C on ce ntr a t i on C a mps C ha pt e r 14 - A m e r ica R e v e rs e s D i r ec t i on C ha pt e r 15 - C onvu l s i on a n d P a r al ys i s C ha pt e r 16 - “ A R e pu blic - I f Y ou C a n K ee p I t ” R efe r e n ce s I n de x “ T he O m i nous P a r allel s o ffe rs a tru l y r e vo l ut i on a ry idea .... T he b oo k i s clea r , t igh t , di s ci p li n ed , bea ut if u ll y stru c tur ed , a n d b r illia nt l y r ea son ed I ts sty le i s clea r a n d ha r d a s c ryst al — a n d a s sp a r kli n g .... A s to my p e rson al r eac t i on , I ca n e xpr e ss i t be st b y p a r a p h r a s i n g a li n e f rom A t la s S h ru gged : ‘ I t ʼ s so won de r f u l to s ee a g r ea t , n e w , c ru cial achie v e m e nt w hich i s not m i n e !ʼ ” — A yn R a n d “ E xtr a or di n a r il y p e r ce pt i v e ... f r igh t e n i n g i ns igh ts .... E v e ryon e c on ce rn ed w i t h t he c o llec t i v i st tr e n d i n to da y ʼ s wor ld s h ou ld r ead t hi s b oo k .” — A la n G r ee nsp a n “ A fa s ci n a t i n g w ea v e o f G e rm a n hi story , p hil osop hic de t e rm i n i sm , a n d O bjec t i v i st po le m ic .” — C hicag o T r ib un e THE OMINOUS PARALLELS LEONARD PEIKOFF i s un i v e rs all y r ec o g n i z ed a s t he pr e - e m i n e nt R a n d s ch o la r wr i t i n g to da y H e wor ked cl os el y w i t h A yn R a n d f or t hi rty y ea rs a n d w a s de s ig n a t ed b y he r a s he r i nt ellec tu al hei r a n d hei r to he r e st a t e H e ha s t a u gh t p hil osop h y a t H unt e r C o llege , L on g I s la n d U n i v e rs i ty , a n d N e w Y or k U n i v e rs i ty a n d i s now h ost o f t he n a t i on al r adi o t alk s h ow P hil osop h y : W h o N eed s I t MERIDIAN P u bli s hed b y P e n g u i n G roup P e n g u i n G roup ( USA ) I n c ., 375 H u d son S tr ee t , N e w Y or k , N e w Y or k 10014, U S A P e n g u i n G roup ( C a n ada ), 90 E gli nton A v e nu e E a st , S u i t e 700, T oronto , O nt a r i o , C a n ada M 4 P 2 Y 3 ( a di v i s i on o f P ea rson P e n g u i n C a n ada I n c .) P e n g u i n B oo k s L t d ., 80 S tr a n d , L on d on WC 2 R ORL , E n gla n d P e n g u i n I r ela n d , 25 S t S t e p he n ʼ s G r ee n , D u bli n 2, I r ela n d ( a di v i s i on o f P e n g u i n B oo k s L t d .) P e n g u i n G roup ( A ustr alia ), 250 C a m be rw ell R o ad , C a m be rw ell , V ic tor ia 3124, A ustr alia ( a di v i s i on o f P ea rson A ustr alia G roup P ty L t d .) P e n g u i n B oo k s I n dia P vt L t d ., 11 C ommun i ty C e ntr e , P a n ch s heel P a r k , N e w D elhi - 110 017, I n dia P e n g u i n G roup ( N Z ), 67 A po ll o D r i v e , R os edale , N ort h S h or e 0745, A u ckla n d , N e w Zeala n d ( a di v i s i on o f P ea rson N e w Zeala n d L t d .) P e n g u i n B oo k s ( S out h A f r ica ) ( P ty .) L t d ., 24 S tur dee A v e nu e , R os eba n k , J o ha nn e s b ur g 2196, S out h A f r ica P e n g u i n B oo k s L t d ., R egi st e r ed O ffice s : 80 S tr a n d , L on d on WC 2 R ORL , E n gla n d P u bli s hed b y M e r idia n , a m e m be r o f P e n g u i n G roup ( USA ) I n c P r e v i ous l y pu bli s hed i n a M e ntor edi t i on F i rst M e r idia n P r i nt i n g , J u l y C opyr igh t © L e on a r d P eik o ff , 1982 A ll r igh ts r e s e rv ed REGISTERED TRADEMARK - MARCA REGISTRADA CIP da t a i s a v ailable W i t h out li m i t i n g t he r igh ts un de r c opyr igh t r e s e rv ed ab ov e , no p a rt o f t hi s pu blica t i on m a y be r e pro d u ced , stor ed i n or i ntro d u ced i nto a r e tr ie v al syst e m , or tr a nsm i tt ed , i n a ny f orm , or b y a ny m ea ns ( elec tron ic , m echa n ical , p h oto c opy i n g , r ec or di n g , or ot he rw i s e ), w i t h out t he pr i or wr i tt e n p e rm i ss i on o f b ot h t he c opyr igh t own e r a n d t he ab ov e pu bli s he r o f t hi s b oo k PUBLISHER ʼ S NOTE T he s ca nn i n g , up l o adi n g , a n d di str ib ut i on o f t hi s b oo k v ia t he I nt e rn e t or v ia a ny ot he r m ea ns w i t h out t he p e rm i ss i on o f t he pu bli s he r i s illegal a n d pun i s hable b y la w P lea s e pur cha s e on l y a ut h or i z ed elec tron ic edi t i ons , a n d d o not p a rt ici p a t e i n or e n c our age elec tron ic p i r ac y o f c opyr igh t ed m a t e r ial s Y our support o f t he a ut h or ʼ s r igh ts i s a ppr ecia t ed BOOKS ARE AVAILABLE AT QUANTIT Y DISCOUNTS WHEN USED TO PROMOTE PRODUCTS OR SERVICES FOR INFORMATION PLEASE WRITE TO PREMIUM MARKETING DIVISION , PENGUIN GROUP ( USA ) INC ., 375 HUDSON STREET , NEW Y ORK , NEW Y ORK 10014 e ISBN : 978-1-101-14755-9 h ttp :// us p e n g u i n g roup c om I ntro d u c t i on I t gi v e s m e g r ea t p lea sur e to i ntro d u ce t he fi rst b oo k b y a n O bjec t i v i st p hil osop he r ot he r t ha n mys elf P e r ha ps t he be st r ec omm e n da t i on I ca n gi v e t hi s b oo k — a n d i ts a ut h or , D r L e on a r d P eik o ff — i s to s a y t ha t i t a n d he a r e not o f to da y ʼ s c u l tur al m ai nstr ea m T he y w ill be p a rt o f tomorrow ʼ s I t i s not n ece ss a ry f or m e to prov e t ha t som e t hi n g i s wron g w i t h to da y ʼ s wor ld E v e ry b o d y — o f a ny c r eed , c o l or , or i nt ellec tu al p e rsu a s i on , o ld a n d youn g , r ich a n d poor , c ons e rv a t i v e a n d libe r al , f or eig n a n d d om e st ic — s e ns e s t ha t som e t hi n g monstrous i s de stroy i n g t he wor ld B ut no on e k nows w ha t i t i s , a n d p e op le kee p bla m i n g on e a not he r — w i t h som e j ust ice A s a symptom o f to da y ʼ s c u l tur al a nx ie ty , o b s e rv e t he unusu al i nt e r e st i n a n d t he del u ge o f b oo k s deali n g w i t h N a z i G e rm a ny E v e ry sort o f s e m i - p la us ible a n d w h o ll y i mposs ible t he ory ha s bee n o ffe r ed i n f ut ile a tt e mpts to fi n d t he ca us e a n d e xp lai n t he r i s e o f N a z i sm T he fail ur e o f t h os e e xp la n a t i ons i nt e ns ifie s t he qu e st : m e n s ee m to s e ns e t ha t t he c o lla ps e o f w ha t had bee n a ci v ili z ed c ountry i nto su ch monstrous e v il must be un de rstoo d if w e a r e to m ake ce rt ai n t ha t i t w ill not be r e p ea t ed “ W e da r e not b rus h a s ide un e xp lai n ed a h orror su ch a s N a z i sm ,” st a t e s D r P eik o ff I f w e d o not k now i ts ca us e s , h ow ca n w e be sur e t ha t our own c ountry i s not tr a v eli n g t he s a m e ro ad ? D r P eik o ff a nsw e rs t he s e qu e st i ons H e ide nt ifie s t he ca us e o f N a z i sm — a n d t he om i nous p a r allel s be tw ee n t he i nt ellec tu al hi story o f G e rm a ny a n d o f t he U n i t ed S t a t e s H e de monstr a t e s t ha t t he r e i s a s cie n ce w hich ha s bee n all b ut o bli t e r a t ed i n t he mo de rn wor ld “ Ye t t hi s s cie n ce de t e rm i n e s t he de st i ny o f n a t i ons a n d t he c ours e o f hi story ... ,” he wr i t e s “ I t i s t he s cie n ce w hich had to be de stroy ed , if t he ca t a strop he s o f our t i m e w e r e to bec om e poss ible T he s cie n ce i s p hil osop h y .” T he non - mo de rn ( a n d non - o ld - fa s hi on ed ) a sp ec t o f L e on a r d P eik o ff ʼ s b oo k i s t he b r ead t h o f hi s v i s i on a n d t he stunn i n g s cale o f hi s p hil osop hic i nt eg r a t i on H e d o e s not s ha r e t he c on c r e t e - b oun d , c o llege - i n d u ced myop ia o f t h os e alleged p hil osop he rs w h o stu d y t he v a r i ous m ea n i n g s o f t he wor d “ b ut ” ( t he c ont e mpor a ry e mp i r ici sts )— nor d o e s he s ha r e t he f o gg y stum bli n g a n d t he fl o a t i n g ab str ac t i ons o f t hei r pr edece ssors ( t he r a t i on ali sts ). H e pr e s e nts t he hi story o f G e rm a ny ʼ s p hil osop h y , i n t elli n g e ss e nt ial s — t he n t he hi story o f A m e r ica ʼ s p hil osop h y a n d w ha t de stroy ed i t ( T he cha pt e r “ T he N a t i on o f t he E n ligh t e nm e nt ” i s t he most i nsp i r ed a n d i nsp i r i n g tr ib ut e to t he F oun di n g F a t he rs t ha t I ha v e e v e r r ead .) T he n he pr e s e nts t he pr ac t ical r e su l ts — t he w a y i n w hich p hil osop hic idea s di r ec t t he c ours e a n d s ha p e t he p a rt ic u la r e v e nts o f t he hi story o f b ot h c ountr ie s , a s r eflec t ed i n po li t ic s , ec onom ic s , a rt , li t e r a tur e , ed u ca t i on , e t c T hi s la st i s t he ca r di n al achie v e m e nt o f D r P eik o ff ʼ s b oo k W hile to da y ʼ s p hil osop h y de p a rtm e nts m ake i t a l ou d po i nt to pro clai m t ha t p hil osop h y ha s not hi n g to d o w i t h pr ac t ical life or w i t h r eali ty ( w hich , t he y add , d o e s not e x i st )— D r P eik o ff s h ows to t hei r m a n gled v ic t i ms w ha t p hil osop h y i s , w ha t i t d o e s , a n d h ow to r ec o g n i z e i ts i n fl u e n ce all a roun d us H e gi v e s a v i rtuoso p e r f orm a n ce o f s h utt li n g eff ort le ss l y be tw ee n ab str ac t i ons a n d c on c r e t e s — kee p i n g t he fi rst t ied fi rm l y to r eali ty a n d t h us ill um i n a t i n g t he s ec on d H e s h ows t ha t a n a t i on b rou gh t up to r ega r d t he pr i n ci p le s o f d uty a n d s elf - s ac r ifice a s ca r di n al v i rtu e s w ill be hel p le ss w he n c on f ront ed b y a ga n g o f t h u g s w h o de m a n d o bedie n ce a n d s elf - s ac r ifice I t i s a tr agic i rony o f our t i m e t ha t t he two worst , bl oo die st tr ibe s i n hi story , t he N a z i s o f G e rm a ny a n d t he C ommun i sts o f S ov ie t R uss ia , b ot h o f w h om a r e mot i v a t ed b y b rut e pow e r - l ust a n d a c ru del y m a t e r iali st ic g r eed f or t he un ea rn ed , s h ow r e sp ec t f or t he pow e r o f p hil osop h y ( t he y call i t “ ide o l o g y ”) a n d sp e n d billi ons o f t hei r l oot ed w eal t h on prop aga n da a n d i n d o c tr i n a t i on , r eali z i n g t ha t m a n ʼ s m i n d i s t hei r most da n ge rous e n e my a n d i t i s m a n ʼ s m i n d t ha t t he y ha v e to de stroy — w hile t he U n i t ed S t a t e s a n d t he ot he r c ountr ie s o f t he W e st , w h o clai m to belie v e i n t he sup e r i or i ty o f t he h um a n sp i r i t ov e r m a tt e r , n eglec t p hil osop h y , de sp i s e idea s , st a rv e t he be st m i n d s o f t he youn g , o ffe r not hi n g b ut t he st ale st s l o ga ns o f a m a t e r iali st ic al tru i sm i n t he f orm o f gl o bal gi v ea w a ys , a n d won de r w h y t he y a r e l os i n g t he wor ld to t he t h u g s A s a n e x a mp le o f w h y t he ca us e o f N a z i sm s h ou ld be un de rstoo d ( b ut i s not ), I wou ld like to m e nt i on a r ece nt t ele v i s i on i nt e rv ie w w i t h H el mut S ch m id t , C ha n cell or o f W e st G e rm a ny A s ked to n a m e hi s fa vor i t e p hil osop he r , he a nsw e r ed — i n a cha n ged ton e o f vo ice , a st iff , so le mn , deaf - a n d - bli n d , heel - clicki n g ton e —“ M a r c us A ur eli us H e t a u gh t t ha t w e must d o our d uty ab ov e all .” I f he i s typ ical o f hi s c ountry ( a n d I belie v e he i s ), G e rm a ny ha s lea rn ed not hi n g T he i n effable monst e r de stroy i n g t he wor ld i s not a n e nt i ty b ut a v ac uum , a n ab s e n ce , t he e mpt i n e ss lef t b y t he c o lla ps e o f p hil osop h y I n t ha t ligh t le ss e mpt i n e ss , m i n dle ss m e n r a tt le f r a nt icall y , b ump i n g i nto on e a not he r , s eeki n g de sp e r a t el y som e w a y to e x i st on ea rt h — w hich t he y ca nnot fi n d w i t h out t he too l t he y ha v e di s ca r ded T hi s lead s to p he nom e n a su ch a s N a z i G e rm a ny or S ov ie t R uss ia , a s D r P eik o ff de monstr a t e s I f you d o not w i s h to be a v ic t i m o f to da y ʼ s p hil osop hical ba n k rupt c y , I r ec omm e n d T he O m i nous P a r allel s a s prot ec t i on a n d a mmun i t i on I t w ill prot ec t you f rom support i n g , unw i tt i n gl y , t he idea s t ha t a r e de stroy i n g you a n d t he wor ld I t w ill b r i n g or de r i nto t he cha os o f to da y ʼ s e v e nts — a n d s h ow you s i mu l t a n e ous l y t he e norm i ty o f t he ba tt le a n d t he c ont e mpt ible sm all n e ss o f t he e n e my T he O m i nous P a r allel s o ffe rs a tru l y r e vo l ut i on a ry idea i n t he field o f t he p hil osop h y o f hi story T he b oo k i s clea r , t igh t , di s ci p li n ed , bea ut if u ll y stru c tur ed , a n d b r illia nt l y r ea son ed I ts sty le i s clea r a n d ha r d a s c ryst al — a n d a s sp a r kli n g I f you like my wor k s , you w ill like t hi s b oo k A s to my p e rson al r eac t i on , I ca n e xpr e ss i t be st b y p a r a p h r a s i n g a li n e f rom A t la s S h ru gged : “ I t ʼ s so won de r f u l to s ee a g r ea t , n e w , c ru cial achie v e m e nt w hich i s not m i n e !” A Y N RAND N e w Y or k N ov e m be r 1980 PART ONE THEOR Y 1 T he C a us e o f N a z i sm H e r e i s t he t he ory : “ I t i s t h us n ece ss a ry t ha t t he i n di v id u al s h ou ld fi n all y c om e to r eali z e t ha t hi s own eg o i s o f no i mport a n ce i n c omp a r i son w i t h t he e x i st e n ce o f hi s n a t i on ; t ha t t he pos i t i on o f t he i n di v id u al eg o i s c on di t i on ed so lel y b y t he i nt e r e sts o f t he n a t i on a s a w h o le ... t ha t ab ov e all t he un i ty o f a n a t i on ʼ s sp i r i t a n d w ill a r e wort h fa r mor e t ha n t he f r eed om o f t he sp i r i t a n d w ill o f a n i n di v id u al ....” “ T hi s st a t e o f m i n d , w hich su b or di n a t e s t he i nt e r e sts o f t he eg o to t he c ons e rv a t i on o f t he c ommun i ty , i s r eall y t he fi rst pr e m i s e f or e v e ry tru l y h um a n c u l tur e .... T he ba s ic a tt i tu de f rom w hich su ch ac t i v i ty a r i s e s , w e call — to di st i n g u i s h i t f rom eg o i sm a n d s elfi s h n e ss — ideali sm B y t hi s w e un de rst a n d on l y t he i n di v id u al ʼ s ca p aci ty to m ake s ac r ifice s f or t he c ommun i ty , f or hi s fell ow m e n .” T he s e st a t e m e nts w e r e m ade i n our ce ntury b y t he leade r o f a m aj or W e st e rn n a t i on H i s c ountrym e n r ega r ded hi s v ie wpo i nt a s un c ontrov e rs ial H i s po li t ical pro g r a m i mp le m e nt ed i t fai t hf u ll y T he st a t e m e nts w e r e m ade b y A d o lf H i t le r H e w a s e xp lai n i n g t he mor al p hil osop h y o f N a z i sm .1 A n d he r e i s t he u l t i m a t e pr ac t ice ( a s de s c r ibed b y W illia m S hi r e r i n T he R i s e a n d F all o f t he T hi r d R eich ): “ T he ga s cha m be rs t he ms el v e s [ a t A us ch w i tz ] a n d t he adj o i n i n g c r e m a tor ia , v ie w ed f rom a s h ort di st a n ce , w e r e not s i n i st e r - l oo ki n g p lace s a t all ; i t w a s i mposs ible to m ake t he m out f or w ha t t he y w e r e O v e r t he m w e r e w ell - ke pt la wns w i t h fl ow e r b or de rs ; t he s ig ns a t t he e ntr a n ce s m e r el y s aid BATHS T he unsusp ec t i n g J e ws t h ou gh t t he y w e r e s i mp l y bei n g t ake n to t he ba t h s f or t he del ous i n g w hich w a s c ustom a ry a t all ca mps A n d t ake n to t he acc omp a n i m e nt o f sw ee t mus ic ! “ F or t he r e w a s ligh t mus ic A n or che str a o f ‘ youn g a n d pr e tty gi r l s all d r e ss ed i n w hi t e bl ous e s a n d n a vy - bl u e s ki rts ,ʼ a s on e surv i vor r e m e m be r ed , had bee n f orm ed f rom a mon g t he i nm a t e s W hile t he s elec t i on w a s bei n g m ade f or t he ga s cha m be rs t hi s un i qu e mus ical e ns e m ble p la y ed ga y tun e s f rom T he M e rry W id ow a n d T ale s o f H o ff m a nn N ot hi n g so le mn a n d som be r f rom B ee t h ov e n T he dea t h m a r che s a t A us ch w i tz w e r e spr igh t l y a n d m e rry tun e s , str aigh t out o f V ie nn e s e a n d P a r i s ia n op e r e tt a “ T o su ch mus ic , r ecalli n g a s i t did ha pp ie r a n d mor e f r i vo l ous t i m e s , t he m e n , wom e n a n d child r e n w e r e led i nto t he ‘ ba t h h ous e s ,ʼ w he r e t he y w e r e to ld to un d r e ss pr e p a r a tory to t aki n g a ‘ s h ow e r .ʼ S om e t i m e s t he y w e r e e v e n gi v e n tow el s O n ce t he y w e r e i ns ide t he ‘ s h ow e r - room ʼ— a n d p e r ha ps t hi s w a s t he fi rst mom e nt t ha t t he y m a y ha v e susp ec t ed som e t hi n g w a s a m i ss , f or a s m a ny a s two t h ous a n d o f t he m w e r e p acked i nto t he cha m be r like s a r di n e s , m aki n g i t diffic u l t to t ake a ba t h — t he m a ss i v e d oor w a s s lid s h ut , l o cked a n d he rm e t icall y s ealed U p ab ov e w he r e t he w ell - g room ed la wn a n d fl ow e r bed s al most c on cealed t he mus h room - s ha p ed lid s o f v e nts t ha t r a n up f rom t he hall o f dea t h , or de r lie s stoo d r ead y to d rop i nto t he m t he a m e t h yst - bl u e c ryst al s o f h y d ro ge n c y a n ide .... “ S urv i v i n g pr i son e rs w a t chi n g f rom bl o ck s n ea r b y r e m e m be r ed h ow f or a t i m e t he s ig n al f or t he or de r lie s to pour t he c ryst al s d own t he v e nts w a s gi v e n b y a S e r gea nt M o ll ‘ N a , gib ih n e n s ch on zu f r e ss e n ʼ (‘ A ll r igh t , gi v e ‘ e m som e t hi n g to che w on ʼ), he wou ld la u gh a n d t he c ryst al s wou ld be pour ed t h rou gh t he op e n i n g s , w hich w e r e t he n s ealed “ T h rou gh hea vy - gla ss port h o le s t he e x ec ut i on e rs c ou ld w a t ch w ha t ha pp e n ed T he n aked pr i son e rs bel ow wou ld be l oo ki n g up a t t he s h ow e rs f rom w hich no w a t e r spout ed or p e r ha ps a t t he fl oor won de r i n g w h y t he r e w e r e no d r ai ns I t too k som e mom e nts f or t he ga s to ha v e mu ch effec t B ut soon t he i nm a t e s beca m e a w a r e t ha t i t w a s i ssu i n g f rom t he p e r f or a t i ons i n t he v e nts I t w a s t he n t ha t t he y usu all y p a n icked , c row di n g a w a y f rom t he p i p e s a n d fi n all y st a mp edi n g tow a r d t he h u ge m e t al d oor w he r e , a s R ei t li n ge r puts i t , ‘ t he y p iled up i n on e bl u e cla mmy bl oo d - sp a tt e r ed pyr a m id , cla w i n g a n d m a u li n g each ot he r e v e n i n dea t h .ʼ ”2 T he N a z i s w e r e not a tr ibe o f pr ehi stor ic s a v age s T hei r c r i m e s w e r e t he o fficial , legal ac ts a n d po licie s o f mo de rn G e rm a ny — a n ed u ca t ed , i n d ustr iali z ed , ci v ili z ed W e st e rn E urop ea n n a t i on , a n a t i on r e nown ed t h rou gh out t he wor ld f or t he l ust e r o f i ts I nt ellec tu al a n d c u l tur al achie v e m e nts B y r ea son o f i ts l on g li n e o f fa mous a rt i sts a n d t hi n ke rs , G e rm a ny ha s bee n called “ t he la n d o f po e ts a n d p hil osop he rs .” B ut i ts ed u ca t i on o ffe r ed t he c ountry no prot ec t i on agai nst t he S e r gea nt M o ll s i n i ts r a n k s T he G e rm a n un i v e rs i ty stu de nts w e r e a mon g t he ea r lie st g roups to back H i t le r T he i nt ellec tu al s w e r e a mon g hi s r egi m e ʼ s most a r de nt support e rs P ro fe ssors w i t h di st i n g u i s hed acade m ic c r ede nt ial s , eage r to pronoun ce t hei r be n edic t i on on t he F ü h r e r ʼ s ca us e , put t hei r s ch o la rs hi p to wor k f u ll t i m e ; t he y turn ed out a lib r a ry o f ad m i r i n g vo l um e s , ad orn ed w i t h o b s c ur e all us i ons a n d lea rn ed r efe r e n ce s T he N a z i s did not gai n pow e r agai nst t he c ountry ʼ s w i s he s I n t hi s r e sp ec t t he r e w a s no g u lf be tw ee n t he i nt ellec tu al s a n d t he p e op le T he N a z i p a rty w a s elec t ed to o ffice b y t he f r eel y ca st ball ots o f m illi ons o f G e rm a n vot e rs , i n cl u di n g m e n on e v e ry so cial , ec onom ic , a n d ed u ca t i on al le v el I n t he n a t i on al elec t i on o f J u l y 1932, t he N a z i s o b t ai n ed 37 p e r ce nt o f t he vot e a n d a p l ur ali ty o f s ea ts i n t he R eich st ag O n J a nu a ry 30, 1933, i n f u ll acc or da n ce w i t h t he c ountry ʼ s legal a n d c onst i tut i on al pr i n ci p le s , H i t le r w a s a ppo i nt ed C ha n cell or F i v e w eek s la t e r , i n t he la st ( a n d s e m i - f r ee ) elec t i on o f t he pr e - tot ali t a r ia n p e r i o d , t he N a z i s o b t ai n ed 17 m illi on vot e s , 44 p e r ce nt o f t he tot al T he vot e rs w e r e a w a r e o f t he N a z i ide o l o g y N a z i li t e r a tur e , i n cl u di n g st a t e m e nts o f t he N a z i p la ns f or t he f utur e , p a p e r ed t he c ountry d ur i n g t he la st y ea rs o f t he W ei m a r R e pu blic M ei n K a mp f al on e so ld mor e t ha n 200,000 c op ie s be tw ee n 1925 a n d 1932. T he e ss e n ce o f t he po li t ical syst e m w hich H i t le r i nt e n ded to e st abli s h i n G e rm a ny w a s clea r I n 1933, w he n H i t le r did e st abli s h t he syst e m he had prom i s ed , he did not fi n d i t n ece ss a ry to f or bid f or eig n tr a v el U nt il W or ld W a r II , t h os e G e rm a ns w h o w i s hed to flee t he c ountry c ou ld d o so T he ov e rw hel m i n g m aj or i ty did not T he y w e r e s a t i s fied to r e m ai n T he syst e m w hich H i t le r e st abli s hed — t he so cial r eali ty w hich so m a ny G e rm a ns w e r e so eage r to e m b r ace or so w illi n g to e n d ur e — t he po li t ic s w hich bega n i n a t he ory a n d e n ded i n A us ch w i tz — w a s : t he “ tot al st a t e .” T he t e rm , f rom w hich t he adjec t i v e “ tot ali t a r ia n ” de r i v e s , w a s c o i n ed b y H i t le r ʼ s m e ntor , M usso li n i T he st a t e must ha v e ab so l ut e pow e r ov e r e v e ry m a n a n d ov e r e v e ry sp he r e o f h um a n ac t i v i ty , t he N a z i s decla r ed “ T he a ut h or i ty o f t he F ü h r e r i s not li m i t ed b y check s a n d c ontro l s , b y sp ecial a utonomous b o die s or i n di v id u al r igh ts , b ut i t i s f r ee a n d i n de p e n de nt , all - i n cl us i v e a n d un li m i t ed ,” s aid E rnst H u be r , a n o fficial p a rty spo ke sm a n , i n 1933. “ T he c on ce pt o f p e rson al libe rt ie s o f t he i n di v id u al a s oppos ed to t he a ut h or i ty o f t he st a t e had to di s a pp ea r ; i t i s not to be r ec on ciled w i t h t he pr i n ci p le o f t he n a t i on ali st ic R eich ,” s aid H u be r to a c ountry w hich li st e n ed , a n d no dded “ T he r e a r e no p e rson al libe rt ie s o f t he i n di v id u al w hich fall outs ide o f t he r eal m o f t he st a t e a n d w hich must be r e sp ec t ed b y t he st a t e .... T he c onst i tut i on o f t he n a t i on ali st ic R eich i s t he r ef or e not ba s ed upon a syst e m o f i n b orn a n d i n alie n able r igh ts o f t he i n di v id u al .”3 I f t he t e rm “ st a t i sm ” de s ig n a t e s c on ce ntr a t i on o f pow e r i n t he st a t e a t t he e xp e ns e o f i n di v id u al libe rty , t he n N a z i sm i n po li t ic s w a s a f orm o f st a t i sm I n pr i n ci p le , i t did not r e pr e s e nt a n e w a ppro ach to g ov e rnm e nt ; i t w a s a c ont i nu a t i on o f t he po li t ical ab so l ut i sm — t he ab so l ut e mon a r chie s , t he o liga r chie s , t he t he o c r acie s , t he r a n d om tyr a nn ie s — w hich ha s cha r ac t e r i z ed most o f h um a n hi story I n deg r ee , h ow e v e r , t he tot al st a t e d o e s diffe r f rom i ts pr edece ssors : i t r e pr e s e nts st a t i sm pr e ss ed to i ts li m i ts , i n t he ory a n d i n pr ac t ice , de vour i n g t he la st r e mn a nts o f t he i n di v id u al A l t h ou gh pr e v i ous dic t a tors ( a n d m a ny to da y ; e g ., i n L a t i n A m e r ica ) o f t e n pr eached t he un li m i t ed pow e r o f t he st a t e , t he y w e r e on t he w h o le un able to e n f or ce su ch pow e r A s a ru le , ci t i z e ns o f su ch c ountr ie s had a ki n d o f p a rt ial “ f r eed om ,” not a f r eed om - on - pr i n ci p le , b ut a t lea st a f r eed om - b y - defa u l t E v e n t he la tt e r w a s effec t i v el y ab s e nt i n N a z i G e rm a ny T he efficie n c y o f t he g ov e rnm e nt i n d om i n a t i n g i ts su bjec ts , t he all - e n c omp a ss i n g cha r ac t e r o f i ts c o e r ci on , t he c omp le t e m a ss r egi m e nt a t i on on a s cale i nvo l v i n g m illi ons o f m e n — a n d , on e m igh t add , t he e norm i ty o f t he s la u gh t e r , t he p la nn ed , syst e m a t ic m a ss s la u gh t e r , i n p eace t i m e , i n i t ia t ed b y a g ov e rnm e nt agai nst i ts own ci t i z e ns — t he s e a r e t he i ns ig n ia o f tw e nt ie t h - ce ntury tot ali t a r ia n i sm ( N a z i a n d c ommun i st ), w hich a r e w i t h out p a r allel i n r ec or ded hi story I n t he tot ali t a r ia n r egi m e s , a s t he G e rm a ns f oun d out af t e r on l y a fe w mont h s o f H i t le r ʼ s ru le , e v e ry de t ail o f life i s pr e s c r ibed , or pros c r ibed T he r e i s no l on ge r a ny di st i n c t i on be tw ee n pr i v a t e m a tt e rs a n d pu blic m a tt e rs “ T he r e a r e to be no mor e pr i v a t e G e rm a ns ,” s aid F r ied r ich S ieb ur g , a N a z i wr i t e r ; “ each i s to a tt ai n s ig n ifica n ce on l y b y hi s s e rv ice to t he st a t e , a n d to fi n d c omp le t e s elf - f u lfill m e nt i n t hi s s e rv ice .” “ T he on l y p e rson w h o i s st ill a pr i v a t e i n di v id u al i n G e rm a ny ,” b o a st ed R o be rt L e y , a m e m be r o f t he N a z i hie r a r ch y , af t e r s e v e r al y ea rs o f N a z i ru le , “ i s som eb o d y w h o i s a s lee p .”4 I n p lace o f t he de sp i s ed “ pr i v a t e i n di v id u al s ,” t he G e rm a ns hea r d dail y or h our l y ab out a diffe r e nt ki n d o f e nt i ty , a supr e m e e nt i ty , w h os e w ill , i t w a s s aid , i s w ha t de t e rm i n e s t he c ours e a n d ac t i ons o f t he st a t e : t he n a t i on , t he w h o le , t he g roup O v e r a n d ov e r , t he G e rm a ns bea r d t he idea t ha t un de r lie s t he ad vo cac y o f omn i pot e nt g ov e rnm e nt , t he idea t ha t tot ali t a r ia ns o f e v e ry ki n d str e ss a s t he j ust ifica t i on o f t hei r tot al st a t e s : c o llec t i v i sm C o llec t i v i sm i s t he t he ory t ha t t he g roup ( t he c o llec t i v e ) ha s pr i m ac y ov e r t he i n di v id u al C o llec t i v i sm h o ld s t ha t , i n h um a n affai rs , t he c o llec t i v e — so cie ty , t he c ommun i ty , t he n a t i on , t he pro le t a r ia t , t he r ace , e t c — i s t he un i t o f r eali ty a n d t he st a n da r d o f v al u e O n t hi s v ie w , t he i n di v id u al ha s r eali ty on l y a s p a rt o f t he g roup , a n d v al u e on l y i nso fa r a s he s e rv e s i t ; on hi s own he ha s no po li t ical r igh ts ; he i s to be s ac r ificed f or t he g roup w he n e v e r i t — or i ts r e pr e s e nt a t i v e , t he st a t e — dee ms t hi s de s i r able F a s ci sm , s aid on e o f i ts leadi n g spo ke sm e n , A lf r ed o R o cc o , str e ss e s t he n ece ss i ty , f or w hich t he o lde r d o c tr i n e s m ake li tt le all ow a n ce , o f s ac r ifice , e v e n up to t he tot al i mmo la t i on o f i n di v id u al s , i n behalf o f so cie ty .... F or L ibe r ali sm [ i e ., i n di v id u ali sm ], t he i n di v id u al i s t he e n d a n d so cie ty t he m ea ns ; nor i s i t c on cei v able t ha t t he i n di v id u al , c ons ide r ed i n t he dig n i ty o f a n u l t i m a t e fi n ali ty , be l ow e r ed to m e r e i nstrum e nt ali ty F or F a s ci sm , so cie ty i s t he e n d , i n di v id u al s t he m ea ns , a n d i ts w h o le life c ons i sts i n us i n g i n di v id u al s a s i nstrum e nts f or i ts so cial e n d s .5 “[ T ] he highe r i nt e r e sts i nvo l v ed i n t he life o f t he w h o le ,” s aid H i t le r i n a 1933 sp eech , “ must he r e s e t t he li m i ts a n d la y d own t he d ut ie s o f t he i nt e r e sts o f t he i n di v id u al .” M e n , ech o ed t he N a z i s , ha v e to “ r eali z e t ha t t he S t a t e i s mor e i mport a nt t ha n t he i n di v id u al , t ha t i n di v id u al s must be w illi n g a n d r ead y to s ac r ifice t he ms el v e s f or N a t i on a n d F ü h r e r .” T he p e op le , s aid t he N a z i s , “ f orm a tru e or ga n i sm ,” a “ li v i n g un i ty ,” w h os e cell s a r e i n di v id u al p e rsons I n r eali ty , t he r ef or e — a pp ea r a n ce s to t he c ontr a ry notw i t h st a n di n g — t he r e i s no su ch t hi n g a s a n “ i so la t ed i n di v id u al ” or a n a utonomous m a n .6 J ust a s t he i n di v id u al i s to be r ega r ded m e r el y a s a f r ag m e nt o f t he g roup , t he N a z i s s aid , so hi s poss e ss i ons a r e to be r ega r ded a s a f r ag m e nt o f t he g roup ʼ s w eal t h “ P r i v a t e prop e rty ” a s c on cei v ed un de r t he libe r ali st ic ec onom ic or de r w a s a r e v e rs al o f t he tru e c on ce pt o f prop e rty [ wrot e H u be r ). T hi s “ pr i v a t e prop e rty ” r e pr e s e nt ed t he r igh t o f t he i n di v id u al to m a n age a n d to sp ec u la t e w i t h i n he r i t ed or ac qu i r ed prop e rty a s he p lea s ed , w i t h out r ega r d f or t he ge n e r al i nt e r e sts .... G e rm a n so ciali sm had to ov e r c om e t hi s “ pr i v a t e ,” t ha t i s , unr e str ai n ed a n d i rr e spons ible v ie w o f prop e rty A ll prop e rty i s c ommon prop e rty T he own e r i s b oun d b y t he p e op le a n d t he R eich to t he r e spons ible m a n age m e nt o f hi s g oo d s H i s legal pos i t i on i s on l y j ust ified w he n he s a t i s fie s t hi s r e spons ibili ty to t he c ommun i ty .7 C ontr a ry to t he M a rx i sts , t he N a z i s did not ad vo ca t e pu blic own e rs hi p o f t he m ea ns o f pro d u c t i on T he y did de m a n d t ha t t he g ov e rnm e nt ov e rs ee a n d run t he n a t i on ʼ s ec onomy T he i ssu e o f legal own e rs hi p , t he y e xp lai n ed , i s s ec on da ry ; w ha t c ounts i s t he i ssu e o f c ontro l P r i v a t e ci t i z e ns , t he r ef or e , m a y c ont i nu e to h o ld t i t le s to prop e rty — so l on g a s t he st a t e r e s e rv e s to i ts elf t he unqu alified r igh t to r eg u la t e t he us e o f t hei r prop e rty I f “ own e rs hi p ” m ea ns t he r igh t to de t e rm i n e t he us e a n d di spos al o f m a t e r ial g oo d s , t he n N a z i sm e n d ow ed t he st a t e w i t h e v e ry r eal pr e ro ga t i v e o f own e rs hi p W ha t t he i n di v id u al r e t ai n ed w a s m e r el y a f orm al deed , a c ont e nt le ss deed , w hich c on fe rr ed no r igh ts on i ts h o lde r U n de r c ommun i sm , t he r e i s c o llec t i v e own e rs hi p o f prop e rty de j ur e U n de r N a z i sm , t he r e i s t he s a m e c o llec t i v e own e rs hi p de fac to D ur i n g t he H i t le r y ea rs — i n or de r to fi n a n ce t he p a rty ʼ s pro g r a ms , i n cl u di n g t he w a r e xp e n di tur e s — e v e ry so cial g roup i n G e rm a ny w a s m e r cile ss l y e xp l o i t ed a n d d r ai n ed W hi t e - c o lla r s ala r ie s a n d t he ea rn i n g s o f sm all b us i n e ssm e n w e r e delibe r a t el y held d own b y g ov e rnm e nt c ontro l s , f r ee z e s , t a x e s B ig b us i n e ss w a s bled b y t a x e s a n d “ sp ecial c ontr ib ut i ons ” o f e v e ry ki n d , a n d str a n gled b y t he b ur ea u c r ac y ( A m id “ t he N iaga r a o f t h ous a n d s o f sp ecial dec r ee s a n d la ws ,” wr i t e s S hi r e r , “ e v e n t he most a stut e b us i n e ssm a n w a s o f t e n l ost , a n d sp ecial la wy e rs had to be e mp l oy ed to e n able a fi rm to f un c t i on T he g r af t i nvo l v ed i n fi n di n g on e ʼ s w a y to ke y o fficial s ... beca m e i n t he la t e t hi rt ie s a stronom ical .”8) A t t he s a m e t i m e t he i n c om e o f t he fa rm e rs w a s held d own , a n d t he r e w a s a de sp e r a t e fligh t to t he ci t ie s — w he r e t he m iddle cla ss , e sp eciall y t he sm all tr ade sm e n , w e r e soon i n de sp e r a t e str ai ts , a n d w he r e t he wor ke rs w e r e f or ced to lab or a t l ow w age s f or i n c r ea s i n gl y l on ge r h ours ( up to 60 or mor e p e r w eek ). B ut t he N a z i s defe n ded t hei r po licie s , a n d t he c ountry did not r ebel ; i t acce pt ed t he N a z i a r g um e nt S elfi s h i n di v id u al s m a y be un ha ppy , t he N a z i s s aid , b ut w ha t w e ha v e e st abli s hed i n G e rm a ny i s t he ideal syst e m , so ciali sm I n i ts N a z i us age t hi s t e rm i s not r e str ic t ed to a t he ory o f ec onom ic s ; i t i s to be un de rstoo d i n a f un da m e nt al s e ns e “ S o ciali sm ” f or t he N a z i s de not e s t he pr i n ci p le o f c o llec t i v i sm a s su ch a n d i ts c oro lla ry , st a t i sm — i n e v e ry field o f h um a n ac t i on , i n cl u di n g b ut not li m i t ed to ec onom ic s “ T o be a so ciali st ,” s a ys G o ebbel s , “ i s to su b m i t t he I to t he t h ou ; so ciali sm i s s ac r ifici n g t he i n di v id u al to t he w h o le .”9 B y t hi s defi n i t i on , t he N a z i s pr ac t iced w ha t t he y pr eached T he y pr ac t iced i t a t h om e a n d t he n ab ro ad N o on e ca n clai m t ha t t he y did not s ac r ifice e nou gh i n di v id u al s T he qu e st i on i s : w h y ? W ha t c ou ld e xp lai n a syst e m su ch a s N a z i sm ? W ha t p e rm i tt ed i t to ha pp e n ? A n e v il o f su ch m ag n i tu de ca nnot be a pro d u c t o f sup e r ficial fac tors I n or de r to m ake i t , a n d i ts G e rm a n popu la r i ty , i nt elligible , on e must p e n e tr a t e to i ts dee p e st , most hidde n roots O n e must g r a sp i ts n a tur e a n d i ts ca us e s i n t e rms o f f un da m e nt al s U n f ortun a t el y , t hi s ha s not bee n t he a ppro ach o f most o b s e rv e rs A s a ru le , c omm e nt a tors ha v e a tt e mpt ed to e xp lai n N a z i sm b y t he oppos i t e m e t h o d : b y t he n e wsp a p e r headli n e s or t he pr ac t ical c r i s e s o f t he mom e nt I t ha s bee n s aid , f or i nst a n ce , t ha t t he G e rm a ns e m b r aced N a z i sm beca us e t he y l ost W or ld W a r I A ustr ia l ost t ha t w a r al so , b ut t hi s did not ca us e i t to turn N a z i ( i t w e nt un de r on l y w he n i nv aded b y H i t le r i n 1938). I t al y , on t he ot he r ha n d , on e o f t he v ic tor i ous pow e rs a t t he V e rs aille s C on fe r e n ce o f 1919, w e nt F a s ci st i n 1922. I t ha s bee n s aid t ha t t he ca us e o f N a z i sm w a s t he G r ea t D e pr e ss i on A ll t he i n d ustr ial n a t i ons su ffe r ed t he r a v age s o f t he D e pr e ss i on F e w turn ed to N a z i sm I t ha s bee n s aid t ha t t he ca us e o f N a z i sm w a s t he w eak n e ss o f t he non - tot ali t a r ia n p a rt ie s i n t he W ei m a r R e pu blic , t he pr e ssur e - g roup w a r fa r e w hich , t he y e n c our aged , a n d t he g ov e rnm e nt al p a r al ys i s t ha t f o ll ow ed T hi s d o e s not e xp lai n w h y or i n w ha t ba s ic r e sp ec t t he non - tot ali t a r ia ns w e r e w eak , nor d o e s i t t ake i nto acc ount t he m a ny c ountr ie s i n w hich so cial cla s he s a n d g ov e rnm e nt al d r if t i n g ha v e not led to N a z i sm T he r e i s no di r ec t ca us al r ela t i ons hi p or e v e n a ny a pprox i m a t e c orr ela t i on be tw ee n sp ecific pr ac t ical c r i s e s ( s i n gl y or i n c om bi n a t i on ) a n d t he de v el opm e nt o f N a z i sm P r ac t ical c r i s e s c on f ront a c ountry w i t h t he n eed f or ac t i on T he y d o not de t e rm i n e w ha t t he ac t i on w ill be I n t he face o f m ili t a ry ru i n , ec onom ic str a n g u la t i on , or g ov e rnm e nt al c o lla ps e , m e n m a y ch oos e to i nv e st iga t e t he di s a st e r ʼ s ca us e s a n d to di s c ov e r a mor e r a t i on al c ours e o f ac t i on f or t he f utur e , i e ., t he y m a y ch oos e to t hi n k O r t he y m a y ch oos e to ha t e , or to pr a y , or to beg , or to kill O n su ch m a tt e rs , t he c r i s i s i ts elf i s s ile nt T he r e a r e ot he r i nt e rpr e t a t i ons o f N a z i sm , be s ide s t he “ pr ac t ical c r i s i s ” t he ory R eligi ous wr i t e rs o f t e n clai m t ha t t he ca us e o f N a z i sm i s t he s ec u la r i sm or t he s cie nt ific sp i r i t o f t he mo de m wor ld T hi s e v ade s t he fac ts t ha t t he G e rm a ns a t t he t i m e , e sp eciall y i n P russ ia , w e r e on e o f t he most r eligi ous p e op le s i n W e st e rn E urop e ; t ha t t he W ei m a r R e pu blic w a s a h ot bed o f myst ic c u l ts , o f w hich N a z i sm w a s on e ; a n d t ha t G e rm a ny ʼ s la r ge st a n d most de vout r eligi ous g roup , t he L ut he r a ns , c ount ed t he ms el v e s a mon g H i t le r ʼ s st a un che st f o ll ow e rs T he r e i s t he M a rx i st i nt e rpr e t a t i on o f N a z i sm , acc or di n g to w hich H i t le r i s t he i n e v i t able r e su l t o f ca p i t ali sm T hi s e v ade s t he fac ts t ha t G e rm a ny af t e r B i sm a r ck w a s t he lea st ca p i t ali st ic c ountry o f W e st e rn E urop e ; t ha t t he W ei m a r R e pu blic f rom t he st a rt w a s a c ontro lled ec onomy , w i t h t he c ontro l s g row i n g st eadil y ; a n d t ha t t he wor d “ N a z i sm ” i s a n abb r e v ia t i on f or “ N a t i on al S o ciali sm .” T he r e a r e t he A ry a n r aci sts i n r e v e rs e , w h o s a y t ha t t he ca us e o f N a z i sm i s t he “ i nn a t e de pr a v i ty ” o f t he G e rm a ns T hi s e v ade s t he fac t t ha t “ de pr a v i ty ” i s a mor al c on ce pt , w hich i mp lie s t ha t m a n i s not pr ede t e rm i n ed b ut ha s f r ee ch o ice I t al so e v ade s t he fac t t ha t r egi m e s s i m ila r to H i t le r ʼ s , r egi m e s diffe r i n g on l y i n t he deg r ee o f b rut ali ty t he y p e rp e tr a t ed , ha v e a pp ea r ed i n our ce ntury ac ross t he gl o be — not on l y i n I t al y , J a p a n , A r ge nt i n a , a n d t he like , b ut al so , i n t he f orm o f c ommun i sm , i n R uss ia , C hi n a , a n d t hei r s a t elli t e s T he n t he r e i s t he F r e u dia n i nt e rpr e t a t i on , acc or di n g to w hich t he ca us e o f N a z i sm i s t he G e rm a ns ʼ O edi pus c omp le x or t hei r dea t h w i s h or t hei r to ile t tr ai n i n g , e t c T hi s e v ade s t he fac t t ha t a r bi tr a ry c onstru c ts , su ch a s F r e u d i s fa mous f or , ca n be m a n i pu la t ed to “ e xp lai n ” a nyt hi n g , a n d t he r ef or e e xp lai n not hi n g W e da r e not b rus h a s ide un e xp lai n ed a h orror su ch a s N a z i sm M a ny wr i t e rs ha v e not ed s i m ila r i t ie s be tw ee n A m e r ica to da y a n d G e rm a ny bef or e H i t le r , t he n ha v e s h ru gged o ff t hei r own o b s e rv a t i ons — su cc um bi n g to t he not i on , spr ead b y to da y ʼ s i nt ellec tu al s , t ha t i t i s bad hi story to c omp a r e two diffe r e nt c ountr ie s T hi s